The formation of the future continuous (sometimes called the future progressive) is:  subject + will + be + verb+ing

Examples:

I will be sleeping
They will be studying
We will be eating

This verb tense is a 4th way to indicate a future event.  There are some differences between all these different ways, but sometimes 2 or more ways can be used with no difference in meaning.

The first way is with will:  I will run in the Boston Marathon this year.
The 2^nd way is with be going to:  I’m going to run in the Boston Marathon this year.
The 3^rd way is with the present continuous:  I’m running in the Boston Marathon this year.
The 4^th way is with the future continuous:  I will be running in the Boston Marathon this year.

There is also a 5^th way, and that is by replacing “will” with “be going to” in the future continuous.  I call this the be going to future continuous:  I’m going to be running in the Boston Marathon this year.

The future continuous is used in 3 situations:

A.  It’s used for actions that are already happening at some future time.

Examples:

At this time next week, I’ll be lying on the beach in Los Cabos.
Next year, we’ll be traveling around Asia.
This evening she’ll be using the computer.

B. The future continuous is also used for future actions that have been planned. It has the same meaning as “going to,” the present continuous, and “be going to,“ future continuous.

Examples:

I’ll be going downtown later today.
I’m going to go downtown later today.
I’m going downtown later today.
I‘m going to be going downtown later today

He’ll be studying for the IELTS exam all next month.
He’s going to study for the IELTS exam all next month.
He’s studying for the IELTS exam all next month.
He‘s going to be studying for the IELTS exam all next month.

We’ll be visiting Aunt Laurie and Uncle Tim this summer.
We’re going to visit Aunt Laurie and Uncle Tim this summer.
We’re visiting Aunt Laurie and Uncle Tim this summer.
We‘re going to be visiting Aunt Laurie and Uncle Tim this summer.

C.  When used as a question, the future continuous and the be going to future continuous asks about someone’s plans because we want something.

Examples:

Will you be using the computer this evening?  I want to use it to do some research.
Are you going to be using the computer this evening?

Will they be staying the whole weekend?  I don’t want to share my bedroom for too long.
Are they going to be staying the whole weekend?

Will I be playing defense in tomorrow’s game?  I want to play defense.
Am I going to be playing defense in tomorrow’s game?

A noun clause is a group of words that serves as a subject or an object of a verb or as an object of a preposition.  It is composed of a marker, a subject, and a verb.

Examples:

Why she was late was not important.  [noun clause subject]
I don’t believe that we’ve met.  [noun clause object]
People judge others by what they do.  [noun clause object of a preposition]

If a noun clauses comes from a statement, it uses the marker that.

Examples:

The world is round.  (statement)
They don’t believe that the world is round.  (noun clause object)

NOTE:  You can drop the marker that when the noun clause is an object.
They don’t believe the world is round.  (noun clause object)

NOTE:  You cannot drop that when the noun clause is a subject.
That the world is round is a fact.  (noun clause subject)

More examples:

I knew that she had forgotten your name.   (noun clause object)
He told me that you were going to be late.  (noun clause object)
That his parents are divorced is well known.  (noun clause subject)

If a noun clause comes from an information question, it uses the marker that is the same question word as in the question: who, what, where, when, why, and how.

NOTE:  There is no inversion of the subject and verb.

Examples:

Who is she?  (information question)

• there is an inversion of the verb (she) and the subject (she))
I don’t know who she is.  (noun clause object)
• there is no inversion. The subject (she) is before the verb (is.))

What did she say?  (information question)
What she said is a lie.  (noun clause subject)

Where do they live?  (information question)
Could you please tell me where they live.  (noun clause object)

When does the game start?  (information question)
They can’t remember when the game starts.  (noun clause object)

Why didn’t he call me?  (information question)
Why he didn’t call me is not important.  (noun clause subject)

How will I know?  (information question)
How I’ll know is by reading the article.  (noun clause subject)

If a noun clause comes from a yes/no question, it uses the marker if.  It can also use the marker whether, but whether is more commonly used with or not.  Sometimes if is also used with or not, but never together.

Examples:

Do they need any help?  (yes/no question)
I wonder if they need any help.
I wonder if they need any help or not.
I wonder whether they need any help.
I wonder whether or not they need any help.
I wonder whether they need any help or not.

WRONG:  I wonder if or not they need any help.
(or not cannot be used right after if)

Only whether can be used if the noun clause is a subject

Examples:

Whether we’re having a picnic depends on the weather.
Whether or not we’re having a picnic depends on the weather.
Whether we’re having a picnic or not depends on the weather.

Whether it will rain tomorrow is anybody’s guess.
Whether or not it will rain tomorrow is anybody’s guess.
Whether it will rain tomorrow or not is anybody’s guess.

More examples:

We’re not sure if they will be able to help.
We’re not sure if they will be able to help or not.
We’re not sure whether they will be able to help.
We’re not sure whether or not they will be able to help.
We’re not sure whether they will be able to help or not.

I’d like to know if there is something good on TV tonight.
I’d like to know if there is something good on TV tonight or not.
I’d like to know whether there is something good on TV tonight.
I’d like to know whether or not there is something good on TV tonight.
I’d like to know whether there is something good on TV tonight or not.

To review:

Noun clauses that come from statements use the marker that.

Noun clauses that come from information questions use the markers: who, what, where, when, why and how.

Noun clauses that come from yes/no questions use the markers if and whether (or not).

Study this page and when you think you’re ready, do the following exercise.

Paired conjunctions (or correlative conjunctions) – both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also – join 2 things.  Each of these four has its own usage.

Both … and:

The first of the paired conjunctions – both … and – connects 2 positive things, such as noun subjects, noun objects, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, and other words.  You must only connect things that are the same.  The first part of the pair (both) can be dropped with no change in meaning.

Examples:

Both her mother and her sisters want her to marry a rich man.
Her mother and her sisters want her to marry a rich man.

I like both apples and oranges.
I like apples and oranges.

She both skis and snowboards.
She skis and snowboards.

The man is both kind and generous.
The man is kind and generous.

The subway moves both fast and quietly.
The subway moves fast and quietly.

That color is both in the dining room and in the living room.
That color is in the dining room and in the living room.

Either … or:

The second of the paired conjunctions is either … or.  If it is used in a positive sentence, then the things that follow are choices and only one of them can be true.  It is used with noun subjects and noun objects, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases, and other words.  Either can be dropped with no change in meaning

Examples:

Either the principal or the teachers are giving the students a day off.  (Only one of them is giving the students a day off.)
The principal or the teachers are giving the students a day off.

NOTE:  The subject closest to the verb determines if the verb is singular or plural.
Either the teachers or the principal is giving the students a day off.

I like either apples or oranges for an afternoon snack.  (I like both but I only choose one.)
I like apples or oranges for an afternoon snack.

She either skis or snowboards on the weekends.  (She does both but only chooses one at a time.)
She skis or snowboards on the weekends.

The man is either brave or stupid; I don’t know exactly which one.  (The man could be both but is only one of those.)
The man is brave or stupid; I don’t know exactly which one.

The subway moves either fast or slowly depending on the volume of passengers.  (It does only one of those at a time – fast or slowly.)
The subway moves fast or slowly depending on the volume of passengers.

My briefcase is either in the dining room or in the living room.  (It is only in one of those places.)
My briefcase is in the dining room or in the living room.

If either … or is used in a negative sentence, then both things that follow are true.  It is only used with noun objects or adverbs.  Either can be dropped with no change in meaning.

Examples:

I don’t eat either bread or pasta.  (I don’t like bread; I don’t like pasta.)
I don’t like bread or pasta.

The subway doesn’t move either fast or quietly.  (It doesn’t move fast; it doesn’t move quietly.)
The subway doesn’t move fast or quietly.

NOTE:  With verbs, adjectives, and prepositional phrases either is always dropped:

Examples:

I don’t take a nap or meditate in the late afternoon.
NOT: I don’t either take a nap or meditate in the afternoon.

The man isn’t kind or generous.
NOT: The man isn’t either kind or generous.

My briefcase isn’t in the dining room or in the living room.
NOT: My briefcase isn’t either in the dining room or in the living room.

NOTE:  The easiest way to learn this grammar is to not use either … or in negative sentences but only in positive ones.

Neither … nor:

The third of the paired conjunctions is neither … nor.  Although the meaning is “not this and not that,” it is always used in positive sentences, never in negative ones.  It is used with noun subject, noun objects, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, and other words.

Examples:

Neither the principal nor the teachers are supervising the students.

NOTE:  The subject closest to the verb determines if the verb is singular or plural.
Neither the teachers nor the principal is supervising the students.

I like neither apples nor oranges.
SAME AS:  I don’t like either apples or oranges.

She neither skis nor snowboards.
SAME AS:  She doesn’t ski or snowboard.

The man is neither kind nor generous.
SAME AS:  The man isn’t kind or generous.

The subway moves neither fast nor quietly.
SAME AS:  The subway doesn’t move fast or quietly.

That color is neither in the dining room nor in the living room.
SAME AS:  That color isn’t in the dining room or in the living room.

Not only … but also:

The fourth of the paired conjunctions – not only … but also – connects 2 things, such as noun subjects, noun objects, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, and other words.  The second part of the pair (but also) can be separated with no change in meaning.  When but is separated from also, also can change to too.

Examples:

Not only did he fail math, but he also failed English.
Not only did he fail math, but he failed English also.
Not only did he fail math, but he failed English too.

NOTE:  When not only starts a sentence, the subject and verb are inverted (switched around.)
SAME AS:  He failed (both) math and English.

We like not only Japanese food but also Korean food.
We like not only Japanese food but Korean food also.
We like not only Japanese food but Korean food too.
SAME AS:  We like (both) Japanese food and Korean food.

They not only travel a lot, but they also make travel videos.
They not only travel a lot, but they make travel videos also.
They not only travel a lot, but they make travel videos too.
SAME AS:  They (both) travel a lot and make travel videos.

People consider him not only intelligent but also very creative.
People consider him not only intelligent but very creative also.
People consider him not only intelligent but very creative too.
SAME AS:  People consider him (both) intelligent and very creative.

She plays poker not only loosely but also aggressively.
She plays poker not only loosely but aggressively also.
She plays poker not only loosely but aggressively too.
SAME AS:  She plays poker (both) loosely and aggressively.

Mike made breakfast not only for himself but also for his wife.
Mike made breakfast not only for himself but for his wife also.
Mike made breakfast not only for himself but for his wife too.
SAME AS:  Mike made breakfast (both) for himself and his wife.

NOTE:  Some people like to put a comma ( , ) before too.
Mike made breakfast not only for himself but for his wife, too.

In English there are two kinds of nouns – countable and uncountable.  Countable nouns are names of individual things and can be made plural by adding an ‘s’ usually.  However, uncountable nouns, which are names of general things or collections of things, can never have an ‘s’ on the end and are always singular.

When a countable noun is singular, you can use the article ‘a’ (which means ‘one’,) but with an uncountable noun, you can never use the article ‘a’ because there is never just one.

Examples:
A chair is cheap.
Furniture isn’t cheap.  (NOT: A furniture …)

Both singular countable nouns and uncountable nouns take a singular verb.

Examples:
A chair is next to the front door.
The furniture is in the living room.

Of course, plural countable nouns take a plural verb.

Example:
Chairs are around the table.

The words some, any, a lot of and no can be used before both plural countable and uncountable nouns.

Examples:
Some chairs need to be repaired.
Some furniture needs to be repaired.

I haven’t bought any chairs yet.
I haven’t bought any furniture yet.

A lot of chairs are broken.
A lot of furniture is broken.

No chairs are needed for the meeting.
No furniture is needed for the meeting.

However, the words many, a few, and few can only be used before countable nouns.  Much, a little and little can only be used before uncountable nouns.

Examples:
We have many chairs.
We have much furniture.

We have a few chairs. (a few = some)
We have a little furniture. (a little = some)

We have few chairs. (few = not many)
We have little furniture.  (little = not much)

Basically, countable nouns are names of individual things, and uncountable nouns are names of general things or collections of things.  For example, individual animals such as steers, pigs, chickens, lambs and fish are all countable.  The meat of these animals, such as beef, pork, chicken, lamb and fish, is uncountable.

Examples:
Pigs are smart animals.
Pork is a tasty meat.

Chickens are noisy.
Chicken is my favorite meat.

Read this list of countable and uncountable nouns and you’ll see the difference:

Countables                                                            Uncountables

FOOD:

bananas / oranges / apples (etc.)                 fruit
carrots, celery, lettuce                                      food
steaks, pork chops, hamburgers                 meat
potatoes                                                                    rice
candies                                                                       candy (general)
ice cream

ACTIONS:

push-ups, sit-ups, jumping jacks                 exercise
conversations                                                        talking  (+ any gerunds)
robberies                                                                  crime
*****                                                                             help
naps                                                                             sleep, rest

INGREDIENTS:

*****                                                                             salt
*****                                                                             pepper
cups of sugar                                                          sugar
bags of flour                                                           flour
*****                                                                            cheese
slices of bread                                                      bread
*****                                                                            oil
*****                                                                            ice
jars of honey                                                         honey

LIQUIDS:

drinks                                                                       alcohol
cups of coffee                                                      coffee
cups of tea                                                             tea
bottles of wine                                                    wine
glasses of juice                                                    juice
cartons of milk                                                   milk
bowls of soup                                                      soup
glasses of water                                                water

EMOTIONS:

*****                                                                         anger
*****                                                                         fear
*****                                                                         joy
*****                                                                         sadness
*****                                                                         love
*****                                                                         happiness

WEATHER:

blizzards                                                              snow
storms                                                                   rain
*****                                                                        pollution, smog
clouds                                                                    fog
*****                                                                        sunshine
*****                                                                        smoke
*****                                                                        weather

MISCELLANEOUS:

dollars                                                                   money
minutes, hours, days (etc.)                         time
questions                                                             information
messages, tweets, emails                           communication
miles, kilometers                                             distance
songs                                                                      music
cars                                                                          traffic, transportation
chairs, sofas, tables, bookcases               furniture
letters                                                                     mail
words of advice                                                advice
exercises                                                               homework, grammar
jobs, careers                                                       work
problems                                                              trouble
TV shows, programs                                      TV
companies                                                           industry
stores, businesses                                           business
*****                                                                         garbage, trash
*****                                                                         litter
sheets of paper                                                 paper
*****                                                                         sand
*****                                                                         noise
*****                                                                         experience
*****                                                                         patience
*****                                                                         knowledge
*****                                                                         beauty
*****                                                                         safety
*****                                                                         evidence
*****                                                                         research
suitcases                                                               baggage, luggage
*****                                                                         news
*****                                                                         progress
hairs                                                                        hair
views                                                                      scenery

This lesson is a continuation of the lesson on subject-verb agreement – basic, where you learned about the basics and some irregular rules.  In this lesson you will learn about other irregularities.

• If there are 2 singular subjects, but they are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also, then the verb is singular.

Examples:
Paul or George is to blame for the mess, but not me.
Not fame nor money makes you happy in life.
Neither Christmas nor Easter was celebrated in his family.
Either my sister or my brother has the front door key.
Not only the school but also the library was shut down for the celebration.

• If there are 2 plural subjects connected with these same words, then the verb is plural

Examples:
Dogs or cats make good pets.
Not the students nor the teachers were allowed to see the exam before time.
Neither the plums, nor the pears are ripe yet.
Either the Russians or the Canadians win the championship usually.
Not only the Joneses but also the Mitchells are keeping chickens in their yard.

• If one word is singular and the other is plural connected with these same words, then the noun closest to the verb determines if it’s singular or plural.

Examples:
The video games or the TV takes up most of his time.
The TV or the video games take up most of his time.

Not the food nor the guests make this a good party.
Not the guests nor the food makes this a good party.

Neither my friends nor my family is going to oppose my decision.
Neither my family nor my friends are going to oppose my decision.

Either your brothers or your sister is going to pay.
Either your sister or your brothers are going to pay.

Not only the teachers but also the principal is coming to the picnic.
Not only the principal but also the teachers are coming to the picnic.

• When a second subject is connected using accompanied by, along with, as well as, besides, in addition to, including, not, or together with, then ignore it.  It is always between commas and does not determine if the verb is singular or plural.

Examples:
The police chief, accompanied by his staff, holds a press conference every week. (The police chief holds …)
The president, along with the vice president, is speaking at the graduation. (The president is …)
Our family, as well as the other families in the neighborhood, is required to leave the area. (Our family is …)
The door, besides all of the windows, needs to be replaced. (The door needs …)
The books, in addition to the TV show, were written by James Patterson. (The books were …)
The original copy, including all the author’s notes, was sold for half a million dollars. (The original copy was …)
The first choice, not the second or third, was the correct one. (The first choice was …)
The actor, together with her daughters, walks down the red carpet.  (The actor walks …)

• Units of measurement, time, distance and money take a singular verb.

Examples:
Two cups of sugar was needed for the recipe.
Forty litres of gasoline fills the tank.
Twenty minutes of exercise is all that you need to do every day.
Three hours seems too long to wait in line for tickets.
Fifteen miles was about as much as I could hike in one day.
Ten kilometers to school and back makes for a very long day.
Twenty dollars is too much to pay for a watermelon.
A thousand dollars pays the rent on this apartment.

• Collective nouns take a singular verb.  Collective nouns are groups of lots of things, but the whole unit is singular.  Some examples of collective nouns are: army, class, club, committee, company, crew, crowd, family, government, group, herd, jury, senate, staff, and team.

Examples:
The class is going on a field trip next week.
The company does business in Asia and Europe.
My wife’s family goes to their cabin every summer.
The group has decided to stay together until the trip is over.
The staff takes a week off at the end of August.

• However, if these collective nouns are followed by a prepositional phrase with a plural noun, the verb is plural.

Examples:
A crowd of demonstrators have blocked the entrance to City Hall.
A group of people are waiting outside.
A minority of students want summer classes.

• The pronouns, both, few, a few, many, and several take plural verbs.

Examples:
Both are incorrect.  (both answers)
Few stay more than a couple days.  (few tourists)
A few have decided to go on strike.  (a few workers)
Many return to this lake every year.  (many geese)
Several are dropping the class.  (several students)

• Infinitives (just like gerunds) always take a singular verb.

Examples:
To sleep before a test is an important thing to do.
To exercise is essential for a healthy life.
To solve this problem is absolutely necessary.

BUT: 2 or more infinitives joined by and take a plural verb.

To rest and to take your medicine are what you need to do now.

• The titles of books, movies, TV shows, etc. take a singular verb even when the title is plural.

Examples:
Bridge of Spies is a movie directed by Steven Spielberg.
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets is the latest from J. K. Rawlings.
Cheers was one of the most popular shows of the 1980s.

Conditionals – advanced

Now that you’re familiar with Conditionals O, I, and II, let’s look at the more advanced Conditionals.

The past conditional, also known as conditional III or the past unreal:

This conditional is used when someone wishes they had done something earlier to change a result they don’t like.  They are often saying that they are sorry that the result is bad.  In this kind of conditional the truth is the opposite of the condition.

The pattern is:  past perfect in the if clause, and would have + past participle in the main clause.

Examples:
If you had called me last night, I would have come over right away.
(The truth is that you didn’t call me, and that’s why I didn’t come over.)

If Jenny had studied harder for the test, she wouldn’t have failed it.
(The truth is that Jenny didn’t study very hard for the test, and that’s why she failed it.)

If Jason had set his alarm, he wouldn’t have been late to class.
(The truth is that he didn’t set his alarm, and that’s why he was late to class.)

If they had been on time, they would have heard about the room change.
(The truth is that they were late, so they didn’t hear about the room change.)

To make any of these conditionals negative, put not, or another negative word such as never, hardly, hardly ever, seldom or rarely between the first two verbs.

Examples:
If he hadn’t been honest, he wouldn’t have told the police anything.
If she had never seen a kangaroo, she would hardly have known what they look like.
If her boyfriend hadn’t lived in Vancouver, she would rarely have gone there.

With the word would and had, you can shorten them both to ‘d, and with have, you can shorten it to ‘ve.

Example:
If we‘d been on time, we‘d have heard about the room change.
OR:  If we‘d been on time, we would‘ve heard about the room change.

But with the negative not (n’t), don’t shorten had or would:

Example:
If we hadn’t been on time, we wouldn’t have heard about the room change.

Remember that in all these examples if the if clause is before the main clause, there’s a comma ( , ) at the end of that clause.  If the if clause is after the main clause, then no comma is used.

Examples:
I wouldn’t have fallen asleep if the movie had been more interesting.
If I had won the lottery, I would’ve traveled around the world first class .
I would have lived in a better apartment if I had had more money.
If you had called me that night, I would have come over right away.

There are other modal verbs that can be used instead of would, such as could (ability) and might (possibility).

Examples:
If she had studied harder, she would have passed the test.
If she had studied harder, she could have passed the test.
If she had studied harder, she might have passed the test.

There are other ways to make conditional sentences, but these are more formal and less often used.

In Conditional I if can be replaced by should.  

Examples:
If you’re in town on the third, you can come to my party.
Should you be in town on the third, you can come to my party.

If it rains, we’ll have to cancel the picnic.
Should it rain, we’ll have to cancel the picnic.

BUT:  If the conditional is negative, do not use should.

Example:
If it’s not too expensive, I can come with you.
NOT:  Should it not be too expensive, I can come with you.

In Conditional III if can be dropped, but the verb must be inverted.

Examples:
If she had been on time, we could have seen the beginning of the movie.
Had she been on time, we could have seen the beginning of the movie.

If I had remembered her birthday, I would have bought her a present.
Had I remembered her birthday, I would have bought her a present.

If he hadn’t been so sick, he might not have stayed in bed all day.
Had he not been so sick, he might not have stayed in bed all day.

There’s one last thing about Conditionals O, I, and II.  You can use unless instead of if, but the sentence must be opposite.

Conditional O examples:
If I don’t get enough sleep, I feel tired the next day.
Unless I get enough sleep, I feel tired the next day.

If he is nice to her, she is nice to him.
Unless he is mean to her, she is nice to him.

Conditional I examples:
If you lend me some money, I can buy an iPhone.
Unless you lend me some money, I can’t buy an iPhone.

If you don’t tell me the truth, I won’t help you.
Unless you tell me the truth, I won’t help you.

Conditional II examples:
I told them that if we all worked together, we could finish by midnight.
I told them that unless we all worked together, we couldn’t finish by midnight.

If I were rich, I would send some money to my parents.
Unless I were poor, I would send some money to my parents.

Here is a review of all 4 conditionals:

General conditional  (Conditional O):

If it rains, I take my umbrella.
Unless it rains, I don’t take my umbrella.

Future conditional  (Conditional I):

If it rains tomorrow, I’ll take my umbrella.
Should it rain tomorrow, I’ll take my umbrella.
Unless it rains tomorrow, I won’t take my umbrella.

Present conditional  (Conditional II):

If it rained, I would take my umbrella.
Unless it rained, I wouldn’t take my umbrella.

Past conditional  (Conditional III):

If it had rained, I would have taken my umbrella.
Had it rained, I would have taken my umbrella.

This may seem like an easy piece of grammar to learn.  If the subject is singular, the verb is in the singular form, and if the subject is plural, the verb is in the plural form.

Examples:
He takes cream and sugar in his coffee.
They take cream and sugar in their coffee.

Her smart phone is an iPhone.
Their smart phones are both Samsungs.

And of course if there are 2 or more subjects joined with and, the verb is plural.

Examples:
John and Paul are leaving for Europe tomorrow morning.
Cats and dogs generally don’t like each other.

NOTE:  Don’t be confused when there is a clause or phrase between the subject and its verb.

Examples:
The man who is feeding the pigeons is homeless.
The colors of the rainbow are beautiful.

However, there are some subjects that are more challenging and must be learned.

Subjects that are singular:

•  Gerunds:

Examples:
Playing video games is his favorite activity.
Studying before a test is a good idea.

BUT:  2 or more gerunds joined by and take a plural verb

Walking and swimming are good ways to exercise.

•  Any word with any, some, no, and every:

Examples:
I don’t know if anyone is coming.  (others: anybody, anything)
Somebody is at the door.  (others: someone, something)
Nothing bad is going to happen.  (no one, nobody)
Everyone in this room has to leave.  (everybody, everything)

•  Each, every and one: (Be careful because sometimes these can be followed by plural nouns, but they’re still singular.)

Examples:
Each student in this school has to take this course.
Each one of those cars has had a previous owner.
Every answer on her test is correct.
Every one of these teas comes from Asia.
One student was late for class.
One of the cars that he owns is a Mercedes.

Subjects that can be singular or plural:

•  There and here are either singular or plural depending on the noun that follows. (The noun that follows is really the true subject.)

Examples:
There’s no reason to get upset.  (reason is singular)
There are two ways to solve this problem.  (ways is plural)

NOTE:  Many English speakers get lazy about this grammar and use only there’s for everything, singular or plural.  [There’s two ways to solve this problem.]

There was a fly in my soup.
There were many kinds of wines at the tasting.
Here is the information that I found.
Here are the answers to the last test you took.
Here was a man who could be trusted.
Here were people who could think for themselves.

Watch out!  If a noun is in a prepositional phrase, it cannot be the subject of the verb.

Examples:
The books on the table need to be put away.  (table is not the subject of need)
Julia, just like her friends, loves to hang out at the coffee shop.  (friends is not the subject of loves)

•  A lot , all, none, some, (fractions) and (percentages):  Unlike the examples above, for these words, you must look at the noun in the following prepositional phrase to see if they take a singular or plural verb.

Examples:

A lot of his advice was very useful.  (a lot is singular because advice is singular)
A lot of my classmates were from other countries.  (a lot is plural because classmates is plural)

All of the work is finally finished.  (all is singular because work is singular)
All of the universities she applied to are in New England.  (all is plural because universities is plural)

None of the information was useful.  (none is singular because information is singular)
None of his answers were correct.  (none is plural because answers is plural)

Some of the furniture needs to be cleaned.  (some is singular because furniture is singular)
Some of his friends are planning a surprise party for him.  (some is plural because friends is plural)

Three quarters of the student body wants a new class president.
Three quarters of the students want a new class president.

Eighty percent of the homework is easy.
Eighty percent of the exercises are easy

NOTE:  When the words all, any, more, most and some are used as adjectives, the following noun (countable or uncountable) determines if the verb is singular or plural.

Examples:
All the grapes are on the kitchen counter.
All the fruit is on the kitchen counter.

Any answers you can give are greatly appreciated.
Any money you can give is greatly appreciated.

More trees produce more oxygen.
More phytoplankton produces more oxygen.

Most jobs pay very little.
Most work pays very little.

Some suitcases are very light and easy to carry.
Some baggage is very light and easy to carry.

•  With question words the real subject is after the verb, so you have to look at the following noun to see if the verb should be singular or plural.

Examples:
Who are the brothers inviting to their party?
What is the teacher going to put on the test?
Where are all my friends going?
When is our final exam?
Why are those people staring at us?
How is your grandmother?

•  Nouns that look plural but are really singular: economics, mathematics , measles, the news, politics, physics, and statistics.

Examples:
The news is not good.
Measles is mostly a childhood disease.
Basic mathematics is used in daily life.

•  Nouns that look singular but are really plural: couple, majority, minority, and police

Examples:
The couple have finally arrived.
The majority like the food in the cafeteria.
A minority are natural blonds.
The police were present at the demonstration.

Now that you’ve learned the basic use of the articles a, an, and the, you’re ready for a more complete understanding.

Articles are dropped when used with Proper nouns:  (Proper nouns are capitalized names.)

Examples:
Microsoft has its head office in Redmond, Washington.
George got a managerial job at McDonald’s.

Exception:  If the proper noun has a “dictionary word” as part of the name, put the before the name because the proper noun is used as an adjective.

Examples:
The Nile River is the longest river in the world.  (Nile is used as an adjective for River.)
The New York Stock Exchange is the world’s largest.
The Hawaiian Islands are in the middle of the Pacific Ocean.
The Rocky Mountains separate British Columbia from Alberta.

NOTE:  You can sometimes drop the “dictionary word” if it’s commonly known, but the is still used.

Examples:
The Nile is the longest river in the world.  (River has been dropped.)
The Rockies separate British Columbia from Alberta.  [Rockies = Rocky Mountains and mountains has been dropped.)
The Pacific is the largest ocean in the world.  (Ocean has been dropped.)

Exceptions:  Mount, Mountain, Lake, City, Street/Road/Avenue/Boulevard (etc.), State (when last), New, North(ern), South(ern), East(ern), and West(ern) are “dictionary words” but the is not used.

Examples:
Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
Whistler Mountain is a ski resort north of Vancouver.
Lake Louise is a tourist attraction in the Rocky Mountains.
New York City has a population of over 8 million people.
BUT:  The city of Vancouver gets half of its annual rainfall from November to January. (“city” is not part of the name)
The skytrain runs under Cambie Street.
Abbey Road was an album by the Beatles.
She went to school in New York State.  (BUT …in the state of New York.)
New Brunswick has an almost equal number of French and English speakers.
The state capital of North Dakota is Bismarck.
They moved here from Northern Ireland.
South Africa has eleven official languages.

BUT:  When north, east, south and west are used as a general area, the is used.

Examples:
In the American revolution, the North fought against the South.
Many manufactured products come from the East.
For most of the 20^th century, the developed countries were mostly in the West.

The is used when a proper noun is used as an adjective (to describe a noun.)

Examples:
The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 caused fires that lasted for several days
(The earthquake in San Francisco)

The Chicago fire of 1871 destroyed over 17,000 buildings.
(The fire in Chicago)

The New York countryside is full of forests.
(The countryside in New York)

No article is used with general nouns (nouns that refer to all of something):

Examples:
Gold is an expensive metal.
You should drink water everyday.
Honesty is a good quality to have.

However, if the noun isn’t used in a general way, then the is used.

Examples:
The gold in this ring is expensive.
You shouldn’t drink the water from the tap.
The honesty of that man is unquestionable.

The past perfect is a verb tense that is learned by students at an advanced level.  It is used for an action that happened before another action in the simple past.  Look at these two examples:

Examples:
When I got home, my roommate went to bed.
(My roommate went to bed after I got home.)

When I got home, my roommate had gone to bed.
(My roommate went to bed before I got home.)

The past perfect is most often used in a sentence with a verb in the simple past or a time in the past.  The word already is often used to emphasize that the action in the past perfect tense occurred before the action in the simple past tense.

Examples:
The movie had already started by the time we arrived.
She hadn’t made up her mind until late last night.
Had you read the book before you saw the movie?

Sometimes the past perfect can be the only verb in a sentence, but it refers to an action that is already stated.

Examples:
“Why was Johnny sad?  Did you punish him for something?”
“Yes, he had drawn pictures all over the wall in the living room.”
(Drawing pictures was before being punished.)

“Why didn’t your son run in the race?”
“He had broken a toe the day before.”
(Breaking a toe was before not running in the race.)

Generally speaking, the past perfect is used less and less in today’s English, especially when it’s already clear which action happened before the other.  This is especially true with the words: before, after and until.  With these 3 words and sometimes with the word when, it’s clear which action happened first.  Therefore, it’s not necessary to use the past perfect, and most English speakers use the simple past.

Examples:
He had finished all his homework before he went to bed.
He finished all his homework before he went to bed.  (also correct)
(It’s clear that finishing his homework is before going to bed.)

After he had fallen asleep on the sofa, his wife turned off the light.
After he fell asleep on the sofa, his wife turned off the light.  (also correct)
(It’s clear that his falling asleep is before his wife’s getting into bed.)

She didn’t go to bed until she had done all her chores.
She didn’t go to bed until she did all her chores.  (also correct)
(It’s clear that doing all her chores is before going to bed.)

He started practicing his guitar as soon as he had gotten home.
He started practicing his guitar as soon as he got home.  (also correct)
(It’s clear that getting home is before practicing his guitar.)

When the children had finished their homework, they put their books away.
When the children finished their homework, they put their books away.
(It’s clear that finishing their homework is before putting their books away.)

BUT when it is not clear which action happened first, you must use the past perfect for the first action.

When the movie finished, everyone had left the theatre.  (Leaving the theatre was before the movie finished.)
When the movie finished, everyone left the theatre.  (Leaving the theatre was after the movie finished.)
(It’s not clear which action happened first, so the past perfect is used in the first example.)

When two actions happen at the same time or almost the same time, use the simple past for both actions.

Examples:
When I arrived at work, I turned on the lights.  (Arriving at work and turning on the lights is at almost the same time.)
She screamed when she opened her present.  (Screaming and opening her present are at the same time.)

In reported speech when you add the words showing that a speaker said something, those words become the second action, and if the other action is in the simple past, it is changed to the past perfect because it happened before the person reported it.

Examples:
He said, “I crashed the car into a tree.”
He said that he had crashed the car into a tree.
(Crashing the car is before saying it.)

She told him, “You left the milk out last night.”
She told him that he had left the milk out last night.
(Leaving the milk out is before telling him.)

We asked them, “Did you win the game?”
We asked them if they had won the game.
(Winning the game is before asking them.)

Also in reported speech, if the original verb in quoted speech is in the present perfect, it is changed to the past perfect.

Examples:
He said, “My brother has been home all week with the flu.”  (quoted speech)
He said that his brother had been home all week with the flu.  (reported speech)

She told me, “I’ve seen that movie four times.”  (quoted speech)
She told me that she had seen that movie four times.  (reported speech)

We asked her, “Have you ever gone abroad?”  (quoted speech)
We asked her if she had ever gone abroad.  (reported speech)

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

There’s no easy way to know which preposition follows an adjective.  The best way to learn this grammar is to learn the adjective and preposition together.  If there’s a verb after the preposition, it must of course be in the gerund form.  Here is a list of the most common adjective + preposition combinations:

absent from:   She’s been absent from class for a week.
afraid of:  She says she’s not afraid of anything.
angry with (at) / about:  She’s angry with (at) her sister.  (both with and at are correct before a person or animal)
He’s angry about the weather.  (use about before a thing)
ashamed of (someone) for / about:  I’m ashamed of myself for lying to my mother.  (for is used before a reason)
They’re both ashamed about their behavior.
aware of:  I wasn’t aware of any problems they were having.
bad at:  He’s bad at remembering names.
based on:  The movie is based on a real-life story.
bored with:  They stopped playing because they were bored with the game.
capable of:  I don’t think he’s capable of murder.
certain of:  I left my wallet right here.  I’m certain of it.
clever at:  She’s quite clever at solving puzzles.
close to:  We all live close to our parent’s house.
compared to (with):  Compared to (with) yesterday it’s much warmer.  (no difference between to and with)
concerned about:  They’re concerned about their son joining the army.
content with:  I’m content with my apartment and don’t want to move.
different from:  This tea tastes different from the tea we had yesterday.
disappointed in (with):  His father was disappointed in (with) him.   (no difference between in and with)
done with:  Could you pass the salt when you’re done with it
dressed in:  Everyone was dressed in black for the funeral.
embarrassed about:  I’m embarrassed about the way I acted last night.
engaged to:  She just got engaged to a wonderful man.
equal to:  Your success will be equal to the amount of work you do.
equipped with:  This car is equipped with GPS.  (Global Positioning System)
excited about:  Everyone is excited about the arrival of the Queen.
familiar with:  I’m not familiar with that language.
famous for:  Thomas Edison is most famous for the invention of the light bulb.
far from:  The place we’re going is far from here.
fond of:  My girlfriend is very fond of chocolates.
free of:  This food is free of artificial colors and flavors.
friendly to (with):  It’s important to be friendly to (with) your coworkers.   (no difference between to and with)
frightened of / about / by:  She seems to be frightened of the dog.  (use of before an ongoing source)
She’s frightened about losing her home.  (use about before a situation)
She was frightened by the loud noise.  (use by before a single source)
furious at (someone) for / about:  She’s furious at him for staying out so late.   (use at before a person or animal)
They’re furious about the decrease in their pensions.  (use about before a thing)
glad about:  I’m glad about your acceptance to university.
good at / with:  He’s good at sports.  (use at before activities)
He’s good with his hands.  (use with before tools)
grateful (to someone) for:  We’re grateful to you for lending us the money.
We’re grateful for all we have.  (to someone can be dropped)
guilty of:  I’m not guilty of this crime.
happy about (with):  They’re not happy about (with) all the delays.  (no difference between about and with)
inferior to:  This cell phone is inferior to the iPhone.
innocent of:  I believe you’re innocent of the charges.
interested in:  He’s been interested in flying for as long as I’ve known him.
involved in:  I don’t want to get involved in your business.
jealous of:  He’s jealous of his ex-girlfriend’s new boyfriend.
known for:  This restaurant is known for its cheesecake.
lucky at:  I’ve never seen someone so lucky at poker.
made of / from / by / for:  This table is made of reclaimed wood.  (use of for the material)
This table is made from the wood of an old ship.  (use from for the origin)
This table is made by Uhuru, a company in New York City. (use by for the maker)
This table is made for people who love wood furniture.  (use for for the destination)
married to:  They’ve been married to each other for twenty years.
necessary (for someone) to:  It’s not necessary for you to help clean up.
It’s not necessary to clean up tonight.  (for someone can be dropped)
nervous about:  I’m nervous about my first day on the job.
next to:  He put his keys next to his wallet.
opposite of:  The opposite of love is indifference, not hate.
patient with:  She’s always very patient with her students.
perfect for:  Those earrings are perfect for my wife.
polite to:  They’ve taught their children to always be polite to other people.
possible (for someone) to:  Is it possible for people to live on Mars?
Is it possible to live on Mars?  (for someone can be dropped)
proud of (someone) for / to:  She’s proud of her daughter for telling the truth.
She’s proud to represent her company at the conference.
related to:  Are you related to Mark Zuckerberg, the founder of Facebook?
responsible for:  Because of his mental illness, he was not responsible for his actions.
satisfied with:  I feel satisfied with my job.
scared of:  Don’t be scared of trying something new.
shy about:  He’s shy about speaking in public.
sick of / with:  I’m sick of watching TV all the time.  Let’s go out.  (sick of means tired of)
I think she’s sick with the flu.  (sick with means physically sick)
slow at:  He’s a little slow at math, but he can usually get the right answer.
sorry for (about):  I’m sorry for the way I acted yesterday.   (no difference between for and about)
superior to:  These speakers are superior to the ones in the other store.
sure of (about):  Are you sure of your answer?  (no difference between of and about)
surprised at (someone) for / by:  I’m not at all surprised at him for making that decision.  (use at before a person or animal)
I’m not at all surprised by his decision.  (use by before a thing)
terrified of:  My sister is terrified of spiders
tired of / from:  Aren’t you tired of spending your whole day inside?  (tired of means you don’t want to do it anymore)
Aren’t you tired from all the activity during the holidays?  (tired from means physically tired)
typical of (for)(someone) to:  It’s typical of her to be late.  (no difference between of and for)
upset with (at) (someone) for / about:  I’m upset with (at) him for breaking the vase.  (no difference between with and at)
I’m upset about the change in government.
worried about:  Are you worried about the weather on your wedding day?
wrong with:  There’s nothing wrong with putting yourself first.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot