If you want your writing and especially your speaking to get better, learn how to use reported speech.  It raises your level of English a lot, and you’ll know this grammar probably better than most English speakers.  Reported speech, or indirect speech, is used when you are reporting (telling someone) what someone else said.  This is different than direct speech where you use quotation marks.  Let’s look at the difference:

Examples:
She said, “ I’m bored and I’m going to my friend’s house.”  (Direct speech)
She said that she was bored and that she was going to her friend’s house.  (Indirect speech)

The difference in these two examples is that in direct speech the words inside the quotation marks (“  ”) are the same words that came out of the person’s mouth.  They are exactly her words.  In reported speech, you say what the person said in your words.  Therefore, some of the words are different, but the meaning is the same.

Some of the words are different because these words were probably said in the past and in a different place.  Therefore, the words that change are pronouns, possessive adjectives, and verb tenses.  Notice in the examples above that “I” changes to “she” and ‘m (am) changes to “was.”  This is because the reporter of the speech is not the person who originally said the words.  Therefore, I, who is the person speaking, changes to she, who is the person reported on.  In the same way, the original speaker talked in the present tense (am), but when the reporter reports the speech, he or she is usually doing it later, so the verb tense cannot be present.  It must be past (was).  My, which belongs to the person talking, changes to her from my point of view.

In reported statements, that can be dropped anytime before a subject and verb, so I will put it in parentheses – (that).  When you see this word in the examples that follow, remember that you can drop it if you want to.

There are several reporting verbs that you can use.  The 2 most common are said and told.

Use said for the reporting verb if you don’t have a person or people after it:

Examples:
He said (that) he arrived before noon.
They said (that) they had a good time at our party.
(Sometimes people say:  They said to us (that) they had a good time at our party, but this is far less common.)

Use told if you have a person or people after it.  This person or people can be a pronoun (me, you, him, her, us, them) or a noun (our parents, the police, etc.):

Examples:
We told our parents (that) we were coming straight home.
They told us (that) they needed more time to prepare.

Here are some more examples of statements in reported speech:

She said, “I study hard because I want to pass.”  (quoted speech)
She said (that) she studied hard because she wanted to pass.  (reported speech)

He told her, “I’m bored, so I want to do something interesting.”  (quoted speech)
He told her (that) he was bored, so he wanted to do something interesting.  (reported speech)

If the time hasn’t changed when you report the speech, then you don’t have to change the present tense to the past, but you can if you want to, and there’s no difference in meaning.

Examples:
He said, “I usually eat a quick breakfast and then get a cup of coffee on my way to work.”  (quoted speech)
He said (that) he usually eats a quick breakfast and then gets a cup of coffee on his way to work.  (reported speech)
He said (that) he usually ate a quick breakfast and then got a cup of coffee on his way to work.  (reported speech)

She said, “I often listen to music when I study.”  (quoted speech)
She said (that) she often listens to music when she studies.  (reported speech)
She said (that) she often listened to music when she studied.  (reported speech)

He said, “It rains when there are cumulus clouds in the sky.”  (quoted speech)
He said (that) it rains when there are cumulus clouds in the sky.  (reported speech)
He said (that) it rained when there were cumulus clouds in the sky.  (reported speech)

These verb tenses change in reported speech:

present simple –>  past simple

Example:
He said, “I like to eat watermelon in the summertime.”  (quoted speech)
He said (that) he liked to eat watermelon in the summertime.  (reported speech)

present continuous –>  past continuous

Example:
They said, “We are putting together a basketball team.”  (quoted speech)
They said (that) they were putting together a basketball team.  (reported speech)

These modals change:

can –> could

Example:
She said, “I can help you after work.”  (quoted speech)
She said (that) she could help them after work.  (reported speech)

will –> would

Example:
He said, “I’ll meet you at the library.”  (quoted speech)
He said (that) he would meet me at the library.  (reported speech)

may –> might

Example:
I said, “You may want to bring a coat with you.”  (quoted speech)
I said (that) you might want to bring a coat with you.  (reported speech)

have to –> had to

Example:
They said, “We have to finish the project before Friday.”  (quoted speech)
They said (that) they had to finish the project before Friday.  (reported speech)

must –> had to

Example:
We said, “We must win this game for the coach.”  (quoted speech)
We said (that)  we had to win the game for the coach.  (reported speech)

These modals don’t change:

could

Example:
She told us, “I could remember everyone’s name.”  (quoted speech)
She told us (that) she could remember everyone’s name.  (reported speech)

would

Example:
I told him, “You would sleep better with the lights off.”  (quoted speech)
I told him (that) he would sleep better with the lights off.  (reported speech)

should

Example:
The coach told the team, “Everyone should get a good night’s sleep.”  (quoted speech)
The coach told the team (that) everyone should get a good night’s sleep.  (reported speech)

The easiest kind of reported speech is when someone gives a command.   To report a command, use told and change the verb to the infinitive (with to).

Examples:
Their mother said to them, “Do your homework before dinner.”  (quoted speech)
Their mother told them to do their homework before dinner.  (reported speech)

He told his brother, “Wait for me after school.”  (quoted speech)
He told his brother to wait for him after school.  (reported speech)

If the command is negative, then put not before the infinitive.

Examples:
She said, “Don’t forget to lock the door.”  (quoted speech)
She told me not to forget to lock the door.  (reported speech)

Her mother said, “Don’t wear your good shoes to school.”  (quoted speech)
Her mother told her not to wear her good shoes to school.  (reported speech)

You can also use an infinitive when you report a request, which uses can, could, will or would.  Use the reporting verb asked.

Examples:
My friend said to me, ”Could you please help me get started?”  (quoted speech)
My friend asked me to help him get started.  (reported speech)

Susan said, “Will you open the salsa jar for me?”  (quoted speech)
Susan asked me to open the salsa jar for her.  (reported speech)

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

Reported speech can be more complicated than I showed you on the Reported speech – basic page.  For example, there are more words that change besides pronouns, possessive adjectives, and verb tenses.    Place words and time words also change. 

To review, the first kind of reported speech is with statements.   All the examples below are statements.  Later we’ll look at imperatives, questions and other types of sentences.

In a statement that can be dropped anytime before a subject and verb, so I will put it in parentheses – (that).  When you see this word in the examples that follow, remember that you can drop it if you want to.

It’s important to know which words you have to change in reported speech.

These verb tenses change:

present simple –>  past simple

Example:
He said, “I like to eat watermelon in the summertime.”
He said (that) he liked to eat watermelon in the summertime..

present continuous –>  past continuous

Example:
They said, “We are putting together a basketball team.”
They said (that) they were putting together a basketball team.

past simple –>  past perfect

Example:
He told them, “I went to our usual pub, but none of you were there.”
He told them (that) he had gone to their usual pub, but (that) none of them had been there.

present perfect –>  past perfect

Example:
He said, “My family have lived in this area for generations.”
He said (that) his family had lived in that area for generations.

present perfect continuous –>  past perfect continuous

Example:
They said, “We’ve been practicing for hours.”
They said (that) they’d been practicing for hours.

Past continuous –> past perfect continuous

Example:
She said, “I was working in the garden all afternoon.”
She said (that) she had been working in the garden all afternoon.

However, these verb tenses don’t change:

past perfect –>  past perfect

Example:
I said to her, “I had forgotten to lock the door.”
I told her (that) I had forgotten to lock the door.

past perfect continuous –>  past perfect continuous

Example:
She said, “I had been wondering about that for a long time.”
She said (that) she had been wondering about that for a long time.

The following modals change:

will –>  would

Example:
He told me, “I’ll be there at 11:00 at the very latest.”
He told me (that) he would be here at 11:00 at the very latest.

can –>  could

Example:
She said, “I can be at the meeting tomorrow morning.”
She said (that) she could be at the meeting tomorrow morning.

may –>  might

Example:
She said, “I may be late, but I’ll be there.”
She said (that) she might be late, but (that) she’d be there.

have to  –> had to

Example:
He told her, “I have to go to New York on business.”
He told her (that) he had to go to New York on business.

must –> had to

Example:
She said, “I must see the dentist sometime this month.”
She said (that) she had to see the dentist sometime this month.

However, these modals don’t change:

might –>  might

Example:
He told them, “There’s one thing I might do for you.”
He told them (that) there was one thing he might do for them.

could –>  could

Example:
He said, “I couldn’t come yesterday because I lost my car keys.”
He said (that) he couldn’t come yesterday because he had lost his car keys.

would –>  would

Example:
I told them, “I would visit more often if I could.”
I told them (that) I would visit more often if I could.

should –>  should

Example:
She said to him, “I think I should go stay with my aunt in Toronto.”
She told him (that) she thought she should go stay with her aunt in Toronto

ought to –>  ought to

Example:
Mother told the children,” You ought to keep your rooms clean.”
Mother told the children (that) they ought to keep their rooms clean.

had better –>  had better

Example:
I said to her, “You’d better not be late for your appointment.”
I said (that) she’d better not be late for her appointment.

used to –>  used to

Example:
He said, “I used to be a fireman in Chicago.”
He said (that) he used to be a fireman in Chicago.

Place words often change.  However, if the place hasn’t changed from the direct speech to the reported speech, then don’t change these words:

here –>  there
this –>  that
these –>  those

Examples:
He said, “I’m supposed to meet him here later.”
He told me (that) he was supposed to meet him there later.
(I’m in a different place when I report the speech.)

They said to us, “You can use this room for a meeting.
They said (that) we could use that room for a meeting.
(We’re in a different place when we report the speech.)

He said, “I read these books when I was young.”
He said (that) he had read those books when he was young.
(The person is in a different place when he reports the speech.)

Time words often change.  However, if the time is still the same at the time of the reporting, then don’t change the time word.

next –>  the following
last –>  the previous / the ____ before
today –> that day
tomorrow –>  the next day / the following day
yesterday –> the previous day / the day before
now –>  then
in ____ –> ____ later
this –>  that

Examples:
She said, “The store is having a sale next Friday.”
She told  us (that) the store was having a sale the following Friday.

I said to him, “I didn’t sleep very well last night.”
I told him (that) I hadn’t slept very well the previous night (the night before.)

He told me, “My girlfriend is leaving for Los Angeles today.”
He told me (that) his girlfriend was leaving for Los Angeles that day.

They told us, “We’re having a game tomorrow at the park.”
They told us (that) they were having a game the next day (the following day) at the park.

He said to him, ”I couldn’t find my bus pass yesterday.”
He told him (that) he couldn’t find his bus pass the previous day (the day before.)

I told her, “You have to come with me now.”
I told her (that) she had to come with me then.

She said, “I‘ll be finished in half an hour.”
She said (that) she would be finished half an hour later.

John said, “I can help you this Saturday.”
John said (that) he could help us that Saturday.

In addition to statements, there are other kinds of sentences that you can report.

The imperative (commands) is a little different than statements in reported speech.  The verb becomes an infinitive (with to).  Use told for your reporting verb or asked if there is a “please.”

Examples:
I said to her, “Go pick up the kids.”
I told her to go pick up the kids.

He said to them, “Please take your seats.”
He asked them to take their seats.

We said to the team, “Do your best but most of all have fun.”
We told the team to do their best but most of all to have fun.

The nurse said to us, “Please wait here and someone will be with you shortly.”
The nurse asked us to wait here and (that) someone would be with us shortly.

Questions are also different in reported speech.

If it is a yes/no or a choice question, then use if.  Always use the reporting verb asked.  Also, there is no inversion of the subject and verb like in a real question.  Also remember to drop the question mark (?) because it’s no longer a question.

Examples:
He said, “Would you like coffee or tea?”  (Choice)
He asked us if we would like coffee or tea.

My neighbor said, “Could you look after my dog for a week?”  (Yes or no)
My neighbor asked me if I could look after her dog for a week.

He said, “Is it on the top or the bottom shelf?”  (Choice)
He asked if it was on the top or the bottom shelf.

He asked her, “Do you live around here?”  (Yes or no)
He asked her if she lived around here.

Notice that there is no subject-verb inversion (would we or could we) in reported questions.  Always put the subject before the verb in reported speech (we would or we could).

If it’s an information question (who, what, where, when, why, how), then repeat the question word.  As above, don’t invert the subject and verb.   Again, drop the question mark.

Examples:
She said, “What time is it?”
She asked me what time it was.

He asked her, “Where can I go for coffee around here?”
He asked her where he could go for coffee around there.

He asked me, “Why are you always so tired?”
He asked me why I was always so tired.

We asked him, “How can we find out if we passed or not?”
We asked him how we could find out if we had passed or not.

When reporting invitations, there are 2 ways to do it – the regular way or with an infinitive.  Use the reporting verbs invited or asked.  Once again, drop the question mark.

Examples:
She said to him, “Would you like to go on a picnic with us?”
She asked him if he would like to go on a picnic with them.
She invited him to go on a picnic with them.

He said to her, “Would you please not smoke in my car?”
He asked her if she would not smoke in his car..
He asked her not to smoke in his car.
[Note that the not is before to, not after.]

We said to them, “Would you like to come over for coffee?”
We asked them if they would like to come over for coffee.
We invited them to come over for coffee.

When reporting advice, there are 2 ways to do it – the regular way or with the infinitive.  Use the reporting verb told or advised.

Examples:
He said to his daughter, “You should clean up a bit before he arrives.”
He told his daughter (that) she should clean up a bit before he arrived.
He advised his daughter to clean up a bit before he arrived.

She told her boyfriend, “You should call me when you arrive in Calgary.”
She told her boyfriend (that) he should call her when he arrived in Calgary.
She advised her boyfriend to call her when he arrived in Calgary.

The teacher said to the students, “You should check your writing for mistakes.”
The teacher told the students (that) they should check their writing for mistakes.
The teacher advised the students to check their writing for mistakes.

When reporting requests, do it the regular way or use the infinitive.  The reporting verb is asked.

Examples:
The coach said to the team, “Could you please be on time tomorrow?”
The coach asked the team if they could be on time the following day.
The coach asked the team to be on time the following day.

The man said to us, “Would you please be quiet so I can hear my cellphone.?”
The man asked us if we would please be quiet so he could hear his cellphone.
The man asked us to please be quiet so he could hear his cellphone

I said to him, “Can you help me move on the weekend?”
I asked him if he could help me move on the weekend.
I asked him to help me move on the weekend.

When reporting permission given, do it the regular way or use an infinitive.  The reporting verbs to use are told, invited or gave (someone) permission.

Examples:
I said to Jonathan, “You can stay at my place for awhile.”
I told Jonathan (that) he could stay at my place for awhile.
I invited Jonathan to stay at my place for awhile.

He said to his friend, “You can use my bike this afternoon.”
He told his friend (that) he could use his bike that afternoon.”
He gave his friend permission to use his bike that afternoon.

We told them, “You can stay here until the store closes.”
We told them (that) they could stay until the store closed.
We invited them to stay until the store closed.

One last thing.  If the reporting verb is in the present tense (say, tell, ask), or if you’re reporting the speech immediately, then make no verb changes.

Examples:
She said, “What time are we going home?”
She asked what time we are going home.  [Immediate reporting.  No change in time or place.]

His friend always tells him, “You would be rich if you worked harder.”
His friend always tells him (that) he would be rich if he worked harder.  [Reporting verb is present tense.]

They asked us, “Will you help us.”
They asked us if we will help them.  [Immediate reporting.]

Let’s review:

Statements:

She said, “The rainbow is beautiful.”
She said (that) the rainbow was beautiful.

Imperative:

He told the class, “Take your seats.”
He told the class to take their seats.

Yes/no or choice question:

John said, “Would you please  stop talking.”
John asked them if they would stop talking.

Information question:

They asked me, “When will the game start?”
They asked me when the game would start.

Reporting invitations, advice, requests and permission:

We told them, “You can stay overnight, but you must leave in the morning.
We told them (that) they could stay overnight but they had to leave in the morning.
We invited them to stay overnight but they had to leave in the morning.

Immediate reporting or when the reporting verb is present tense – no verb tense change:

She asks me all the time, “Are you going for a run?”
She asks me all the time if I‘m going for a run.

Study this page again, and when you’re ready, take the following quiz.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

Adjectives and adverbs are similar words but are used differently.  Let’s see how each is used.

Adjectives give more information about a noun (person, place or thing).  They usually have no –ly on the end, except for costly, daily, early, friendly, lovely, monthly, only, timely, weekly, and yearly.  Adjectives are placed before the noun they describe. 

Examples:
There’s an early flight that leaves at 6:00.
Tuesday is the only day I can meet you.
This is a safe place to talk about your feelings.
He cut himself on the sharp edge of the metal.

Adjectives are also placed after the verbs: be, appear, become, feel, look, seem, sound, smell, and taste.  [Notice that there is no action with these verbs.]

Examples:
His uncle is honest.
The road up the mountain appeared long and steep.
I’m feeling a little sick, so I think I’ll stay home.
The decorations for the party look wonderful.
His idea to advertise on-line sounds doable.

Adjectives are also used after make (someone/something).

Examples:
She makes me angry when she does that.
The seafood made everyone ill.
Changing the rules made the game fair for everyone.

Sometimes nouns can also be used as adjectives.

Examples:
There’s a police car parked down the street.
I need to book a hotel room for this weekend.
His father is the school counsellor.
He often plays video games after school.

Past or present participles can also be used as adjectives.

Examples:
The car needed a new steering wheel.
It was a very interesting lecture last night.
They replaced the broken window the following day.
She felt embarrassed to be there.

Adverbs give more information about a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or an independent clause.  Many adverbs are formed by adding –ly to an adjective, such as:  slow – slowly, easy – easily, weak – weakly.  They are placed before the adjective or adverb they modify, but if they end in -ly, they are placed after the verb or before an independent clause.

Examples:
She sings beautifully.
You’re really strong for a girl.
I’m not feeling very well.
Generally, I feel healthy.

Adverbs of frequency, such as always, often, and sometimes, can be placed before the verb.

Examples:
She always waits for me outside the cafeteria.
I often find that people are nice.
They sometimes wonder if we’re a little crazy.

If there are two verbs, the adverb is placed between them.

Examples:
I can really taste the difference between these colas.
She was slowly walking to the exit when I noticed her.
They have stubbornly refused to consider our proposal.

For adverbs that end in –al, like eternal, special, and radical, the ending is –ally (double l).

Examples:
The men were eternally grateful for their rescue.
This car is specially made for handicapped people.
The house was radically different from when he was young.

Some adjectives and adverbs are exactly the same.  They are:  long, far, fast, funny, hard, late, pretty and right.

Examples:
Have you been waiting long?
It’s been a long day.
He can throw the ball far.
It is a far trip to my homeland.
The kids fell asleep pretty fast.
She’s a fast learner.
She dances funny.
That was a funny joke
We all studied hard for the test.
That was a hard lesson to learn.
She comes late every day?
The bus is late again.
The food in the cafeteria is pretty awful.
All the boys think she is pretty.
He did it right.
That’s not the right way

The adjective good and the adverb well can be a problem sometimes.  Use good to modify nouns, and use well to modify verbs and adjectives.

Examples:
She has a good idea for the party.
That soup tasted really good.
I didn’t know you could sing so well.
The trail up the mountain was well used.

To review:  Adjectives and adverbs modify different things.  Adjectives can only modify nouns, but adverbs can modify verbs, as well as adjectives and other adverbs.  The adverb is usually the adjective + ly, but there are exceptions.  Study this page, and when you think you’re ready, take the quiz that follows, and see how well you know this grammar.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

Participle adjectives are made from verbs with either an -ing (present participle)  or an -ed (past participle) on the end.  How do you know which one to use?  There are 3 parts to that answer.

First, if the participle adjective is a feeling, then put -ing on the end if something gives you or somebody else that feeling and -ed on the end if you or somebody else have that feeling.  -ING = give the feeling.  -ED = have the feeling

Examples:
That is a boring game.  (The game gives me the feeling of boredom.)
I’m bored with that game.  (I have the feeling of boredom.)
That lecture was interesting.  (The lecture gave me the feeling of interest.)
I was interested in the lecture.  (I had the feeling of interest.)
Her photo was embarrassing.  (The photo gave her that feeling.)
She was embarrassed by the photo.  (She had that feeling.)
The book that he read was depressing.  (The book gave him that feeling.)
He was depressed after reading the book.  (He had that feeling.)

Secondly, there are participle adjectives that are not feelings.  To use these correctly, ask yourself if the object does the verb.  If the answer is yes, then put -ing on the end (present participle.)  If the answer is no, then use the past participle.  Remember that some past participles are irregular and don’t have -ed on the end.

Examples:
The losing team rode home in silence.  (Did the team lose something?  Yes – the game.)
The lost dog was finally found.  (Did the dog lose something?  No.)
He put on two coats in the freezing weather.  (Did the weather freeze something?  Yes – everything outside.)
He tried to warm his frozen hands.  (Did his hands freeze something?  No.)
The circling bees stung him many times.  (Were the bees circling?  Yes – they were circling him.)
The circled words were all misspelled.  (Did the words circle something?  No.)

Thirdly, if something is happening at that same time, then it is the present participle (-ing), but if it happened before, if it was already finished, then it is the past participle (-ed).

Examples:
She heard the sound of boiling water.  (The water was boiling at that time.)
The boiled water was very hot.  (The water had finished boiling.)
The falling snow made driving hazardous.  (The snow was falling at that time.)
The fallen snow was already starting to melt.  (The snow had already fallen.)
The opening curtains made a squeaking sound.  (The curtains were opening.)
The opened curtains signaled that someone was at home..  (The curtains were already open.)

Here is a list of participle adjectives and the verbs they came from:

amaze                                  amazed                                         amazing
amuse                                  amused                                         amusing
annoy                                   annoyed                                       annoying
boil                                         boiled                                            boiling
bore                                       bored                                             boring
circle                                     circled                                           circling
close                                     closed                                            closing
confuse                               confused                                      confusing
delight                                 delighted                                      delightful *
depress                               depressed                                    depressing
disappoint                         disappointed                              disappointing
embarrass                         embarrassed                              embarrassing
excite                                   excited                                           exciting
exhaust                               exhausted                                    exhausting
fall                                         fallen                                               falling
fascinate                            fascinated                                    fascinating
frighten                              frightened                                   frightening
freeze                                  frozen *                                         freezing
frustrate                            frustrated                                    frustrating
horrify                                horrified                                        horrifying
interest                              interested                                    interesting
intimidate                         intimidated                                 intimidating
lose                                       lost                                                   losing
open                                     opened                                          opening
please                                  pleased                                          pleasing
puzzle                                  puzzled                                          puzzling
satisfy                                  satisfied                                        satisfying
scare                                     scared                                            scary *
shock                                    shocked                                        shocking
startle                                  startled                                         startling
surprise                              surprised                                      surprising
terrify                                  terrified                                        terrifying
tire                                        tired                                                tiring
upset                                   upset *                                           upsetting
worry                                  worried                                         worrying

* = irregular forms

Study this lesson, and when you think you’re ready, do the following exercise.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

The superlative is used when you are comparing one thing to everything else in a group.  You can also do this using the comparative.

Examples:
David is a taller boy than everyone else in his class.  (Comparative)
David is the tallest boy in his class.  (Superlative)
This movie is more interesting than all the others we’ve seen.  (Comparative)
This movie is the most interesting one we’ve seen.  (Superlative)
You are lazier than all of my other friends.  (Comparative)
You are the laziest of all my friends.  (Superlative)

1. There are 3 ways to form the superlative.  The first way is to add -est.  Do this with all one-syllable adjectives or adverbs.  Also put the (or a possessive adjective) before the adjective/adverb.  The group is usually put last but can also go first.

Examples:
Peter runs the fastest in the whole school.
Of all the students in this class, Maria studied the longest.
That was my hardest test ever.

You don’t always have to put the group.

Examples:
Where is the nearest pharmacy?  (group = all the pharmacies in the city)
That’s not fair.  He took the largest piece.  (group = the whole pizza)
It was his proudest moment.  (group = all the proud moments in his life)

If a 1-syllable adjective ends in one vowel and one consonant, then double the consonant when adding -est.  If a 2-syllable adjective ends in one vowel and one consonant, and the accent is on the last syllable, then double the consonant when adding -est.  (This rule is the same for comparatives before adding -er.)

Examples:
They live in the biggest house in the neighborhood.
This pizza has the thinnest crust of any that they make.
She has the reddest hair of anyone in her family.

If an adjective or adverb has 2 syllables ending with y, change the y to i and then add -est

Examples:
This has been the cloudiest month since we moved here.
My younger brother goes to bed the earliest.  (in our family)
She’s the prettiest girl in school.

These adjectives/adverbs are irregular:  good/well, bad/badly and far/far.  The superlative forms are:  the best, the worst, and the farthest (or furthest.)

Examples:
That restaurant makes the best pizza in town.
Although she sang the worst in the choir, she had a lot of fun.
Voyager is the farthest human-made object from Earth.

2. The second way is to put the most before most adjectives of two or more syllables.  Two-or-more-syllable adverbs all have -ly on the end, and use the most.

Examples:
I want to see who can ask the most nicely.
He is the most caring person I know.
She types the most quickly of anyone in her class.

The following 2-syllable adjectives use -est or most but not both at the same time.  (This is the same list for comparatives.)

able        angry        clever       common       cruel        friendly      gentle      handsome     narrow      pleasant     polite     quiet      simple      sour

Examples:
Canadians are the politest people I know.
Canadians are the most polite people I know.
He’s the ablest programmer in the company.
He’s the most able programmer in the company.
The simplest way to do this is to follow the directions.
The most simple way to do this is to follow the directions.

Adjectives and adverbs of 3 or more syllables always use the most.

Examples:
That was the most interesting lecture I’ve heard in years.
She sings the most beautifully of anyone I’ve heard.
He bought the most expensive diamond ring he could afford.

The most can also be used with no adjective or adverb following:

Examples:
I eat a lot, but my sister eats the most.
It’s the most I can do at this time.
She does the most to help out the family.

The most can also be used before a noun.

Examples:
He picked the most strawberries.
When my brother and I went to Las Vegas, he lost the most money.
She has the most patience of anyone I know.

3. The third way is to put the least before the adjective or adverb.  This is done with all adjectives and adverbs regardless of how many syllables.

Examples:
Of all the people in this office, you seem to be the least busy.
The least costly iPad I could find sells for $150.
He was trying to breathe the least noisily that he could.

Not the least bit means not at all.

Examples:
I’m not the least bit tired, so let’s get started.
You’re not the least bit interested in what I’m saying, are you?
She told me she wasn’t the least bit nervous before her interview.

The least can also be used alone with no adjective or adverb:

Examples:
It’s the least I can do.
Of all the people in her family, her sister talks the least.
I’m the one who exercises the least in my family.

The least can also be used before a noun. In this way the least becomes an adjective for the noun.

Examples:
She makes the least money of anyone in her family.
The winning typist had the least number of mistakes.
We want to go when there’s the least amount of traffic.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

The difference between it and there is not as hard as you think.  Read this page at least twice or until you understand it, and then take the quiz afterwards to see how you do.

It is always singular and the verb that follows is in the singular form ( ‘s’ on the end in the present tense.)  It is a pronoun which refers to things or actions.

Examples:
Where’s the TV remote control?  It’s on the coffee table.  (It = remote control)
I got a haircut yesterday, but I don’t like it very much.  (it = haircut)
The roadblock was successful because it caught eleven drunk drivers.  (it = roadblock)
I love playing poker.  It’s my favorite activity.  (It = playing poker)
I have to put away my work every night, and I think it’s ridiculous.  (It = putting away my work every night)
We’ve been arguing a lot lately, and it’s getting worse.  (It = arguing)

It is also used with be + adjective + object.  It doesn’t really mean anything but is used as an artificial subject  The real subject is the object of the sentence.

Examples:
It is important to clean up after we finish.
To clean up after we finish is important.
It’s clear that he doesn’t know what to do.
That he doesn’t know what to do is clear.
It was brave of you to save that girl from drowning.
To save that girl from drowning was brave of you.

It is also used with be + a singular or plural noun (person, place or thing.)  It doesn’t really mean anything but is used as an artificial subject.  The real subject is the object of the sentence.

Examples:
It was Susan who cleaned the fridge this morning.
Susan cleaned the fridge this morning.
It is my friends who are giving me a going-away party
My friends are giving me a going-away party.
It was Vancouver that won the game against Calgary last night.
Vancouver won the game against Calgary last night.
It was Sochi, Russia, that was chosen as the host city for the 2014 Olympics.
Sochi, Russia, was chosen as the host city for the 2014 Olympics.
It is a traffic accident that is causing this slowdown.
A traffic accident is causing this slowdown.
It was his shoulders that were injured in the accident.
His shoulders were injured in the accident.

Similarly, it is used for weather, time and distance.  Again, it doesn’t really mean anything but serves as the subject of the sentence.

Examples:
It has been raining for four hours.
We’d better bring our boots because it’s going to snow.
It’s not even twelve o’clock yet.
I think it was four in the morning when we left the party.
It’s too far to drive, so let’s take the train.
It is 200 kilometers from here to Seattle.

There, on the other hand, can be singular or plural depending on the object that follows.  There is used to state that something exists, something is real.  There, like it, doesn’t really mean anything but is used as an artificial subject.  The real subject is the object of the sentence.

Examples:
There are 24 students in this class.
24 students are in this class.
There is only one correct answer.
One correct answer exists.
There are many reasons why he can’t help.
Many reasons exist for why he can’t help.
There must be an explanation.
An explanation must exist.

Notice that the verb is plural when the object is plural.

Here’s an exercise to test your understanding:

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

When you have two verbs together, what form should the second verb be?  The first answer to this question is on my page on gerunds and infinitives.  The second answer is on my page on verbs of perception.  The third answer is with the causative verbs:  make, let, have, help and get.   These verbs cause someone else to do the second verb.  After these verbs, there is an object (someone else) before the second verb (except sometimes with help.)  With all the causatives but get, the second verb is in the simple form (the infinitive without to.)  Let’s look at each of these causative verbs separately.

Make:  means to force someone to do something they don’t want to.

Examples:
My parents made me go to summer camp every summer against my wishes.
Her brother made her stay out of the tree house when he was there.

Let:  means to give someone permission to do something.

Examples:
He let his son drive the car for the first time last Saturday.
Please let me stay a little while longer.

Have:  means to ask or order someone to do something.

Examples:
She had the painters start with the two bedrooms on the second floor.
The sergeant had all his men do a five-mile run at the end of every day.

When the verb after have repeats or continues for a long time, you can use the present participle.

Examples:
My boss had me working everyday from 8:00 pm. to 3:00 am.  (Working was a long, continuous action.)
My boss had me work on Sunday last weekend.  (Work was only that one time and not repeated.)

The news had them jumping for joy.  (Jumping was repeated.)
The coach had the team jump over the fence.  (They jumped once.)

When have is used in the passive voice, the second verb is a past participle.

Examples:
She had her hair restyled at Maxime’s across the street.
Will you have the flowers sent straight up to our room when they arrive, please.

Help:  means to do a job that benefits someone else.  There doesn’t have to be an object.

Examples:
He helped clean the kitchen after breakfast.
Everyone helped us move into our new apartment.

After help, you can also use the infinitive with no difference in meaning.  There doesn’t have to be an object.

Examples:
He helped to clean the kitchen after breakfast.
Everyone helped us to move into our new apartment.

Get:  means to ask, order, trick, or pay.  However, the second verb is not in the simple form.  It is in the infinitive form (with to.)

Examples:
Johnny got his brother to hide under the bed.
She got the teacher to agree to give her more time for the project.

When get is used in the passive voice, the second verb is a past participle.

Examples:
He got his car painted after the accident, and now it looks almost new.
We have to get it done by the end of the day.

There are other causative verbs like allow, cause, convince, pay, permit, require, etc., but they are always followed by the infinitive.

Examples:
They allowed the prisoner to go to his wife’s funeral.
She paid the gardener to take good care of her flowers.
The law requires us to have a Visa for that part of the world.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

When you have two verbs together, what form should the second verb be?  The first answer to this question is on my page on gerunds and infinitives.  There is more to this grammar, though.  There are also two verbs together with verbs of perception.

Verbs of perception are about your senses of sight, hearing, smell and touch.  After these verbs there is an object and then a verb.  The verb is in the simple form when the second verb is complete and it’s in the present participle form (-ing) when the second verb is not complete.

Examples:

I saw them go into the mall.  (I saw the complete action including the door closing behind them.)

I saw them going into the mall.  (I only saw part of that action, not the complete action.)

I watched the children play soccer.  (I saw the complete game from start to finish.)

I watched the children playing soccer for awhile, and then I left.  (I only saw part of the game.)

She looked at her mother drive away.  (She saw the complete action.)

She looked at her mother washing the dishes.  (She didn’t see the whole action.)

The students observed the teacher leave the classroom.  (They observed the complete action.)

The students observed the teacher marking papers.  (They only observed part of the action.)

She noticed the boy get off his bicycle.  (She noticed the complete action.)

She noticed the boy riding his bike.  (She noticed only part of the action.)

I heard a plane fly overhead.  (I heard the complete action.)

I heard a plane flying overhead.  (I didn’t hear the complete action, only part of it.)

We listened to the professor talk for an hour and a half.  (We listened to the whole talk.)

We listened to the neighbors having a big argument.  (We listened only to part of the argument.)

I smell something burning.  (It’s not possible to smell all of it, so it’s not complete.)

The sleeping child felt his mother kiss his cheek.  (He felt the complete action.)

He felt his wife tossing and turning in bed.  (He fell asleep and didn’t feel all of it.)

I sensed him enter the room.  (I sensed the complete action.)

I sensed him standing behind me.  (I didn’t sense him when he started standing behind me, only later.)

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

There are 5 ways to state reasons or purpose.

The 1st way is with because, which can go in the middle or at the beginning of the sentence.  However, because is most often used in the middle of the sentence.

Examples:
We’re going to the store because we need some milk.
ALSO:  Because we need some milk, we’re going to the store.  (less often used)

The police searched his home because they wanted to find the murder weapon.
ALSO:  Because the police wanted to find the murder weapon, they searched his home.  (less often used)

I read late into the night because I wanted to finish the book.
ALSO:  Because I wanted to finish the book, I read late into the night.  (less often used)

Another way to use because is with the preposition of.  After these words you can only use a noun object, not a subject and verb.  Because of can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence.

Examples:
Because of the rain, they had to cancel the game.
ALSO:  They had to cancel the game because of the rain.

Because of cheating on his exam, Johnny was suspended from school.
ALSO:  Johnny was suspended from school because of cheating on his exam.

NOTE:  If the noun object of the preposition (of) is a verb, it must be in the gerund (noun) form (cheating.)

Because of the noise next door, I wasn’t able to study.
ALSO:  I wasn’t able to study because of the noise next door.

The 2nd way is with since, which also can go in the middle or at the beginning.  However, since is most often used at the beginning of the sentence.

Examples:
Since we need some more milk, we’re going to the store.
ALSO:  We’re going to the store since we need some milk.  (less often used)

Since the police wanted to find the murder weapon, they searched his home.
ALSO:  The police searched his home since they wanted to find the murder weapon.  (less often used)

Since I wanted to challenge myself, I went bungee jumping.
ALSO: I went bungee jumping since I wanted to challenge myself.  (less often used)

The 3rd way is with so that, which must be followed by one of the modals: can, could, may, might, will, would, must or have to.  The word that can be dropped.

Examples:
We’re going to the store so that we can get some milk.
We’re going to the store so we can get some milk.

The police searched his home so that they could find the murder weapon.
The police searched his home so they could find the murder weapon.

I went bungee jumping so that I would challenge myself.
I went bungee jumping so I would challenge myself.

The 4th way is with for, which must be followed by a noun.

Examples:
We’re going to the store for some milk.

The police searched his home for the murder weapon.

I went bungee jumping for the personal challenge.

The 5th way is with to, which must be followed by a verb (the infinitive.)

Examples:
We’re going to the store to get some milk.

The police searched is home to find the murder weapon.

I went bungee jumping to challenge myself.

Study this page and when you think you’re ready, do the following exercise.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

The present perfect is generally the first perfect tense that students learn after the simple tenses and the present and past continuous.  This tense can be confusing at first, but here is an explanation that you may understand better.

First, the formation of the present perfect is with the auxiliary verb have followed by the past participle of the main verb.  The auxiliary have is often contracted to ‘ve and has to ‘s.  Past participles usually end in –ed, but the irregular ones have to be memorized.  This takes time, but you will learn them all eventually.  Study the irregular ones well because they are the most often used.

Examples:
I have known her for a long time.  (I’ve known her for a long time.)
We have visited them several times.  (We’ve visited them several times.)
She has been a wonderful house guest.  (She’s been a wonderful house guest.)

To form the negative, put not (n’t) after the auxiliary verb (have or has).

Examples:
They haven’t seen each other for weeks.
She hasn’t come back from the store yet.

To form a question, put the auxiliary verb (have or has) before the subject.

Examples:
Have you finished washing the car?
Has she found a new apartment?

Now that you know how to form the present perfect, let’s look at how to use it.  There are 3 uses.

The first use:

The present perfect is used for a one-time action in the past but with no time stated for that action.  In other words, if you don’t know when the action happened, then use the present perfect.  However, if you do know the time of the action, use the simple past.

Examples:
I’ve seen that movie.  (no time stated)
I saw that movie last weekend.  (last weekend is the time)

They have gone home.  (no time stated)
They went home an hour ago.  (an hour ago is the time)

He’s fallen off his bicycle.  (no time stated)
He fell off his bicycle on his way home.  (on his way home is the time)

Have you forgotten your keys?  (no time stated)
Did you forget your keys this morning?  (this morning is the time)

However, if the time stated is still ongoing (still happening) then use the present perfect.

Examples:
I’ve had three cups of coffee this morning.  (It’s still this morning)
I had three cups of coffee this morning.  (It’s not this morning any longer)
This year our team has won every game.  (It’s still this year)
Last year our team won every game.  (It’s not last year any longer)
He’s been sick this week.  (It’s still this week)
He was sick last week.  (It’s not last week any longer)

This use of the present perfect often has the words before and lately, which are used for one-time past actions with no time.

Examples:
Haven’t you heard that joke before?
She’s been absent a lot lately.

The present perfect can also be used with the words already, always, just, recently and yet, but these words can also take the simple past informally.

Examples:
She’s already gotten the letter.  (formal)
She already got the letter.  (informal)

Have you always done the right thing?  (formal)
Did you always do the right thing?  (informal)

We’ve just discovered that we have the wrong address.  (formal)
We just discovered that we have the wrong address.  (informal)

He has recently gone back to Spain for family reasons.  (formal)
He recently went back to Spain for family reasons.  (informal)

They haven’t eaten yet.  (formal)
They didn’t eat yet.  (informal)

The second use:

The present perfect is used for past actions that happened more than once and may happen again.  Often, but not always, the number of times is stated, such as two, three, or four.  There can also be words that are used like numbers, such as:  a couple (2), a lot (20), a few (3), always, ever, many (20), never (0), no (0), often, and several (6).  Most of the time, you will use the present perfect with these words.  However, if the actions are finished and not still ongoing, use the simple past.

Examples:
I’ve eaten at that restaurant three times.  (and I may eat there again (ongoing))
I ate at that restaurant three times last month. (finished and not ongoing)

I’ve seen that movie a couple of times.  (and I may see it again (ongoing))
I saw that movie a couple of times.  (and I probably won’t see it again (not ongoing))

We’ve sent out a lot of emails.  (and we may send more (ongoing))
We sent out a lot of emails last week.  (finished and not ongoing)

There have been a few robberies in this neighborhood.  (and there may still be more (ongoing))
There were a few robberies in this neighborhood before I moved here.  (There haven’t been any robberies since then (not ongoing))

They‘ve always taken their holidays in August.  (and they still are (ongoing))
They always took their holidays in August.   (but they aren’t anymore (not ongoing))

Have you ever gotten his phone number?  (You might still get it (ongoing))
Did you ever get his phone number when you were coworkers?  (You’re not coworkers any longer (not ongoing))

I’ve talked to them many times.  (and I may talk to them again (ongoing)
I talked to them many times when I lived next door. (I don’t live next door anymore (not ongoing))

He’s never seen Vancouver in the winter.  (but he may in the future (ongoing))
He never saw Vancouver in the winter.  (and he probably won’t (not ongoing))

There has been no rain for weeks.  (but there may be rain in the future (ongoing))
There was no rain for weeks last summer.  (finished and not ongoing)

We’ve often gone out to eat.  (and we probably will in the future (ongoing))
We often went out to eat when we lived in San Diego.  (finished and not ongoing)

She has made several bad choices in her life.   (and she may make more (ongoing))
She made several bad choices in her life.  (She’s finished making bad choices (not ongoing))

The third use:

The present perfect is used for an action that started in the past and continues to the present.  In other words, the action is still ongoing.  These words are often used with this use of the present perfect: for, since, so far, to date, and up to now.

Examples:
They have lived in that house for twenty years.  (and they still live there (ongoing))
She’s taken piano lessons since she was five years old.  (and she still does (ongoing))
So far we’ve made $160 washing cars.  (and we’re still washing cars (ongoing))
To date I’ve seen six of his films.  (and I will continue to watch more (ongoing))
The dogs have been very quiet up to now.  (and they are still quiet (ongoing))

Watch out for the word for, and use the simple past if the action is finished.

Examples:
She lived in California for ten years.  (She doesn’t live there anymore (not ongoing))
I babysat the neighbor’s daughter for two weeks last summer.  (This happened last summer (not ongoing))

Use these flashcards to help you study the irregular past participles.

When you think you’re ready, do the following exercise.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot