The formation of the future continuous (sometimes called the future progressive) is:  subject + will + be + verb+ing

Examples:

I will be sleeping
They will be studying
We will be eating

This verb tense is a 4th way to indicate a future event.  There are some differences between all these different ways, but sometimes 2 or more ways can be used with no difference in meaning.

The first way is with will:  I will run in the Boston Marathon this year.
The 2^nd way is with be going to:  I’m going to run in the Boston Marathon this year.
The 3^rd way is with the present continuous:  I’m running in the Boston Marathon this year.
The 4^th way is with the future continuous:  I will be running in the Boston Marathon this year.

There is also a 5^th way, and that is by replacing “will” with “be going to” in the future continuous.  I call this the be going to future continuous:  I’m going to be running in the Boston Marathon this year.

The future continuous is used in 3 situations:

A.  It’s used for actions that are already happening at some future time.

Examples:

At this time next week, I’ll be lying on the beach in Los Cabos.
Next year, we’ll be traveling around Asia.
This evening she’ll be using the computer.

B. The future continuous is also used for future actions that have been planned. It has the same meaning as “going to,” the present continuous, and “be going to,“ future continuous.

Examples:

I’ll be going downtown later today.
I’m going to go downtown later today.
I’m going downtown later today.
I‘m going to be going downtown later today

He’ll be studying for the IELTS exam all next month.
He’s going to study for the IELTS exam all next month.
He’s studying for the IELTS exam all next month.
He‘s going to be studying for the IELTS exam all next month.

We’ll be visiting Aunt Laurie and Uncle Tim this summer.
We’re going to visit Aunt Laurie and Uncle Tim this summer.
We’re visiting Aunt Laurie and Uncle Tim this summer.
We‘re going to be visiting Aunt Laurie and Uncle Tim this summer.

C.  When used as a question, the future continuous and the be going to future continuous asks about someone’s plans because we want something.

Examples:

Will you be using the computer this evening?  I want to use it to do some research.
Are you going to be using the computer this evening?

Will they be staying the whole weekend?  I don’t want to share my bedroom for too long.
Are they going to be staying the whole weekend?

Will I be playing defense in tomorrow’s game?  I want to play defense.
Am I going to be playing defense in tomorrow’s game?

Suggestions are like weak advice when you use the modals could and might.  The verb that follows must be in the simple form.  Compare the following:

You must go see the dentist.  (the strongest advice)

You have to go see the dentist.  (the strongest advice)

You’d better go see the dentist.  (strong advice)

You should go see the dentist.  (regular advice)

You ought to go see the dentist.  (regular advice)

You could go see the dentist, if you wanted to.  (weak advice, more like a suggestion)

You might consider seeing the dentist.  (weak advice, more like a suggestion)

More examples with could and might:
You could apologize to her for forgetting your anniversary.
You could come early and help me set up the room.
You could take her to a movie for your first date.
You might try listening more carefully next time.
You might consider taking guitar lessons.
You might want to change your clothes before you go out.

When there’s nothing better to do that you can think of, use might as well or may as well.

Examples:
You might as well stop now and continue in the morning.  (You think it’s the best thing to do)
You may as well start over from the beginning.   (You think it’s the best thing to do)

Other ways to make suggestions:

Why don’t you/we/I is a question and is followed by a verb in the simple form.

Examples:
Why don’t you go clean up before dinner?
Why don’t we finish this first and then go eat?
Why don’t I make a reservation for this evening?

How about (also pronounced how ’bout) is a question and is followed by a gerund or if plus a subject and verb.

Examples:
How about going to the movies tonight?
How about if we go to the movies tonight?

How about learning how to drive?
How about if you learn how to drive?

Let’s and shall we are used when you include yourself.  Shall we is a question.

Examples:
Let’s take a break and go for lunch.
Shall we take a break and go for lunch?

Let’s get out of here.
Shall we get out of here?

NOTE:  Let’s = let us

Study this page and when you think you’re ready, do the following exercise.

A noun clause is a group of words that serves as a subject or an object of a verb or as an object of a preposition.  It is composed of a marker, a subject, and a verb.

Examples:

Why she was late was not important.  [noun clause subject]
I don’t believe that we’ve met.  [noun clause object]
People judge others by what they do.  [noun clause object of a preposition]

If a noun clauses comes from a statement, it uses the marker that.

Examples:

The world is round.  (statement)
They don’t believe that the world is round.  (noun clause object)

NOTE:  You can drop the marker that when the noun clause is an object.
They don’t believe the world is round.  (noun clause object)

NOTE:  You cannot drop that when the noun clause is a subject.
That the world is round is a fact.  (noun clause subject)

More examples:

I knew that she had forgotten your name.   (noun clause object)
He told me that you were going to be late.  (noun clause object)
That his parents are divorced is well known.  (noun clause subject)

If a noun clause comes from an information question, it uses the marker that is the same question word as in the question: who, what, where, when, why, and how.

NOTE:  There is no inversion of the subject and verb.

Examples:

Who is she?  (information question)

• there is an inversion of the verb (she) and the subject (she))
I don’t know who she is.  (noun clause object)
• there is no inversion. The subject (she) is before the verb (is.))

What did she say?  (information question)
What she said is a lie.  (noun clause subject)

Where do they live?  (information question)
Could you please tell me where they live.  (noun clause object)

When does the game start?  (information question)
They can’t remember when the game starts.  (noun clause object)

Why didn’t he call me?  (information question)
Why he didn’t call me is not important.  (noun clause subject)

How will I know?  (information question)
How I’ll know is by reading the article.  (noun clause subject)

If a noun clause comes from a yes/no question, it uses the marker if.  It can also use the marker whether, but whether is more commonly used with or not.  Sometimes if is also used with or not, but never together.

Examples:

Do they need any help?  (yes/no question)
I wonder if they need any help.
I wonder if they need any help or not.
I wonder whether they need any help.
I wonder whether or not they need any help.
I wonder whether they need any help or not.

WRONG:  I wonder if or not they need any help.
(or not cannot be used right after if)

Only whether can be used if the noun clause is a subject

Examples:

Whether we’re having a picnic depends on the weather.
Whether or not we’re having a picnic depends on the weather.
Whether we’re having a picnic or not depends on the weather.

Whether it will rain tomorrow is anybody’s guess.
Whether or not it will rain tomorrow is anybody’s guess.
Whether it will rain tomorrow or not is anybody’s guess.

More examples:

We’re not sure if they will be able to help.
We’re not sure if they will be able to help or not.
We’re not sure whether they will be able to help.
We’re not sure whether or not they will be able to help.
We’re not sure whether they will be able to help or not.

I’d like to know if there is something good on TV tonight.
I’d like to know if there is something good on TV tonight or not.
I’d like to know whether there is something good on TV tonight.
I’d like to know whether or not there is something good on TV tonight.
I’d like to know whether there is something good on TV tonight or not.

To review:

Noun clauses that come from statements use the marker that.

Noun clauses that come from information questions use the markers: who, what, where, when, why and how.

Noun clauses that come from yes/no questions use the markers if and whether (or not).

Study this page and when you think you’re ready, do the following exercise.

Paired conjunctions (or correlative conjunctions) – both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also – join 2 things.  Each of these four has its own usage.

Both … and:

The first of the paired conjunctions – both … and – connects 2 positive things, such as noun subjects, noun objects, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, and other words.  You must only connect things that are the same.  The first part of the pair (both) can be dropped with no change in meaning.

Examples:

Both her mother and her sisters want her to marry a rich man.
Her mother and her sisters want her to marry a rich man.

I like both apples and oranges.
I like apples and oranges.

She both skis and snowboards.
She skis and snowboards.

The man is both kind and generous.
The man is kind and generous.

The subway moves both fast and quietly.
The subway moves fast and quietly.

That color is both in the dining room and in the living room.
That color is in the dining room and in the living room.

Either … or:

The second of the paired conjunctions is either … or.  If it is used in a positive sentence, then the things that follow are choices and only one of them can be true.  It is used with noun subjects and noun objects, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases, and other words.  Either can be dropped with no change in meaning

Examples:

Either the principal or the teachers are giving the students a day off.  (Only one of them is giving the students a day off.)
The principal or the teachers are giving the students a day off.

NOTE:  The subject closest to the verb determines if the verb is singular or plural.
Either the teachers or the principal is giving the students a day off.

I like either apples or oranges for an afternoon snack.  (I like both but I only choose one.)
I like apples or oranges for an afternoon snack.

She either skis or snowboards on the weekends.  (She does both but only chooses one at a time.)
She skis or snowboards on the weekends.

The man is either brave or stupid; I don’t know exactly which one.  (The man could be both but is only one of those.)
The man is brave or stupid; I don’t know exactly which one.

The subway moves either fast or slowly depending on the volume of passengers.  (It does only one of those at a time – fast or slowly.)
The subway moves fast or slowly depending on the volume of passengers.

My briefcase is either in the dining room or in the living room.  (It is only in one of those places.)
My briefcase is in the dining room or in the living room.

If either … or is used in a negative sentence, then both things that follow are true.  It is only used with noun objects or adverbs.  Either can be dropped with no change in meaning.

Examples:

I don’t eat either bread or pasta.  (I don’t like bread; I don’t like pasta.)
I don’t like bread or pasta.

The subway doesn’t move either fast or quietly.  (It doesn’t move fast; it doesn’t move quietly.)
The subway doesn’t move fast or quietly.

NOTE:  With verbs, adjectives, and prepositional phrases either is always dropped:

Examples:

I don’t take a nap or meditate in the late afternoon.
NOT: I don’t either take a nap or meditate in the afternoon.

The man isn’t kind or generous.
NOT: The man isn’t either kind or generous.

My briefcase isn’t in the dining room or in the living room.
NOT: My briefcase isn’t either in the dining room or in the living room.

NOTE:  The easiest way to learn this grammar is to not use either … or in negative sentences but only in positive ones.

Neither … nor:

The third of the paired conjunctions is neither … nor.  Although the meaning is “not this and not that,” it is always used in positive sentences, never in negative ones.  It is used with noun subject, noun objects, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, and other words.

Examples:

Neither the principal nor the teachers are supervising the students.

NOTE:  The subject closest to the verb determines if the verb is singular or plural.
Neither the teachers nor the principal is supervising the students.

I like neither apples nor oranges.
SAME AS:  I don’t like either apples or oranges.

She neither skis nor snowboards.
SAME AS:  She doesn’t ski or snowboard.

The man is neither kind nor generous.
SAME AS:  The man isn’t kind or generous.

The subway moves neither fast nor quietly.
SAME AS:  The subway doesn’t move fast or quietly.

That color is neither in the dining room nor in the living room.
SAME AS:  That color isn’t in the dining room or in the living room.

Not only … but also:

The fourth of the paired conjunctions – not only … but also – connects 2 things, such as noun subjects, noun objects, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, and other words.  The second part of the pair (but also) can be separated with no change in meaning.  When but is separated from also, also can change to too.

Examples:

Not only did he fail math, but he also failed English.
Not only did he fail math, but he failed English also.
Not only did he fail math, but he failed English too.

NOTE:  When not only starts a sentence, the subject and verb are inverted (switched around.)
SAME AS:  He failed (both) math and English.

We like not only Japanese food but also Korean food.
We like not only Japanese food but Korean food also.
We like not only Japanese food but Korean food too.
SAME AS:  We like (both) Japanese food and Korean food.

They not only travel a lot, but they also make travel videos.
They not only travel a lot, but they make travel videos also.
They not only travel a lot, but they make travel videos too.
SAME AS:  They (both) travel a lot and make travel videos.

People consider him not only intelligent but also very creative.
People consider him not only intelligent but very creative also.
People consider him not only intelligent but very creative too.
SAME AS:  People consider him (both) intelligent and very creative.

She plays poker not only loosely but also aggressively.
She plays poker not only loosely but aggressively also.
She plays poker not only loosely but aggressively too.
SAME AS:  She plays poker (both) loosely and aggressively.

Mike made breakfast not only for himself but also for his wife.
Mike made breakfast not only for himself but for his wife also.
Mike made breakfast not only for himself but for his wife too.
SAME AS:  Mike made breakfast (both) for himself and his wife.

NOTE:  Some people like to put a comma ( , ) before too.
Mike made breakfast not only for himself but for his wife, too.

In English there are two kinds of nouns – countable and uncountable.  Countable nouns are names of individual things and can be made plural by adding an ‘s’ usually.  However, uncountable nouns, which are names of general things or collections of things, can never have an ‘s’ on the end and are always singular.

When a countable noun is singular, you can use the article ‘a’ (which means ‘one’,) but with an uncountable noun, you can never use the article ‘a’ because there is never just one.

Examples:
A chair is cheap.
Furniture isn’t cheap.  (NOT: A furniture …)

Both singular countable nouns and uncountable nouns take a singular verb.

Examples:
A chair is next to the front door.
The furniture is in the living room.

Of course, plural countable nouns take a plural verb.

Example:
Chairs are around the table.

The words some, any, a lot of and no can be used before both plural countable and uncountable nouns.

Examples:
Some chairs need to be repaired.
Some furniture needs to be repaired.

I haven’t bought any chairs yet.
I haven’t bought any furniture yet.

A lot of chairs are broken.
A lot of furniture is broken.

No chairs are needed for the meeting.
No furniture is needed for the meeting.

However, the words many, a few, and few can only be used before countable nouns.  Much, a little and little can only be used before uncountable nouns.

Examples:
We have many chairs.
We have much furniture.

We have a few chairs. (a few = some)
We have a little furniture. (a little = some)

We have few chairs. (few = not many)
We have little furniture.  (little = not much)

Basically, countable nouns are names of individual things, and uncountable nouns are names of general things or collections of things.  For example, individual animals such as steers, pigs, chickens, lambs and fish are all countable.  The meat of these animals, such as beef, pork, chicken, lamb and fish, is uncountable.

Examples:
Pigs are smart animals.
Pork is a tasty meat.

Chickens are noisy.
Chicken is my favorite meat.

Read this list of countable and uncountable nouns and you’ll see the difference:

Countables                                                            Uncountables

FOOD:

bananas / oranges / apples (etc.)                 fruit
carrots, celery, lettuce                                      food
steaks, pork chops, hamburgers                 meat
potatoes                                                                    rice
candies                                                                       candy (general)
ice cream

ACTIONS:

push-ups, sit-ups, jumping jacks                 exercise
conversations                                                        talking  (+ any gerunds)
robberies                                                                  crime
*****                                                                             help
naps                                                                             sleep, rest

INGREDIENTS:

*****                                                                             salt
*****                                                                             pepper
cups of sugar                                                          sugar
bags of flour                                                           flour
*****                                                                            cheese
slices of bread                                                      bread
*****                                                                            oil
*****                                                                            ice
jars of honey                                                         honey

LIQUIDS:

drinks                                                                       alcohol
cups of coffee                                                      coffee
cups of tea                                                             tea
bottles of wine                                                    wine
glasses of juice                                                    juice
cartons of milk                                                   milk
bowls of soup                                                      soup
glasses of water                                                water

EMOTIONS:

*****                                                                         anger
*****                                                                         fear
*****                                                                         joy
*****                                                                         sadness
*****                                                                         love
*****                                                                         happiness

WEATHER:

blizzards                                                              snow
storms                                                                   rain
*****                                                                        pollution, smog
clouds                                                                    fog
*****                                                                        sunshine
*****                                                                        smoke
*****                                                                        weather

MISCELLANEOUS:

dollars                                                                   money
minutes, hours, days (etc.)                         time
questions                                                             information
messages, tweets, emails                           communication
miles, kilometers                                             distance
songs                                                                      music
cars                                                                          traffic, transportation
chairs, sofas, tables, bookcases               furniture
letters                                                                     mail
words of advice                                                advice
exercises                                                               homework, grammar
jobs, careers                                                       work
problems                                                              trouble
TV shows, programs                                      TV
companies                                                           industry
stores, businesses                                           business
*****                                                                         garbage, trash
*****                                                                         litter
sheets of paper                                                 paper
*****                                                                         sand
*****                                                                         noise
*****                                                                         experience
*****                                                                         patience
*****                                                                         knowledge
*****                                                                         beauty
*****                                                                         safety
*****                                                                         evidence
*****                                                                         research
suitcases                                                               baggage, luggage
*****                                                                         news
*****                                                                         progress
hairs                                                                        hair
views                                                                      scenery

This lesson is a continuation of the lesson on subject-verb agreement – basic, where you learned about the basics and some irregular rules.  In this lesson you will learn about other irregularities.

• If there are 2 singular subjects, but they are connected by the words or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also, then the verb is singular.

Examples:
Paul or George is to blame for the mess, but not me.
Not fame nor money makes you happy in life.
Neither Christmas nor Easter was celebrated in his family.
Either my sister or my brother has the front door key.
Not only the school but also the library was shut down for the celebration.

• If there are 2 plural subjects connected with these same words, then the verb is plural

Examples:
Dogs or cats make good pets.
Not the students nor the teachers were allowed to see the exam before time.
Neither the plums, nor the pears are ripe yet.
Either the Russians or the Canadians win the championship usually.
Not only the Joneses but also the Mitchells are keeping chickens in their yard.

• If one word is singular and the other is plural connected with these same words, then the noun closest to the verb determines if it’s singular or plural.

Examples:
The video games or the TV takes up most of his time.
The TV or the video games take up most of his time.

Not the food nor the guests make this a good party.
Not the guests nor the food makes this a good party.

Neither my friends nor my family is going to oppose my decision.
Neither my family nor my friends are going to oppose my decision.

Either your brothers or your sister is going to pay.
Either your sister or your brothers are going to pay.

Not only the teachers but also the principal is coming to the picnic.
Not only the principal but also the teachers are coming to the picnic.

• When a second subject is connected using accompanied by, along with, as well as, besides, in addition to, including, not, or together with, then ignore it.  It is always between commas and does not determine if the verb is singular or plural.

Examples:
The police chief, accompanied by his staff, holds a press conference every week. (The police chief holds …)
The president, along with the vice president, is speaking at the graduation. (The president is …)
Our family, as well as the other families in the neighborhood, is required to leave the area. (Our family is …)
The door, besides all of the windows, needs to be replaced. (The door needs …)
The books, in addition to the TV show, were written by James Patterson. (The books were …)
The original copy, including all the author’s notes, was sold for half a million dollars. (The original copy was …)
The first choice, not the second or third, was the correct one. (The first choice was …)
The actor, together with her daughters, walks down the red carpet.  (The actor walks …)

• Units of measurement, time, distance and money take a singular verb.

Examples:
Two cups of sugar was needed for the recipe.
Forty litres of gasoline fills the tank.
Twenty minutes of exercise is all that you need to do every day.
Three hours seems too long to wait in line for tickets.
Fifteen miles was about as much as I could hike in one day.
Ten kilometers to school and back makes for a very long day.
Twenty dollars is too much to pay for a watermelon.
A thousand dollars pays the rent on this apartment.

• Collective nouns take a singular verb.  Collective nouns are groups of lots of things, but the whole unit is singular.  Some examples of collective nouns are: army, class, club, committee, company, crew, crowd, family, government, group, herd, jury, senate, staff, and team.

Examples:
The class is going on a field trip next week.
The company does business in Asia and Europe.
My wife’s family goes to their cabin every summer.
The group has decided to stay together until the trip is over.
The staff takes a week off at the end of August.

• However, if these collective nouns are followed by a prepositional phrase with a plural noun, the verb is plural.

Examples:
A crowd of demonstrators have blocked the entrance to City Hall.
A group of people are waiting outside.
A minority of students want summer classes.

• The pronouns, both, few, a few, many, and several take plural verbs.

Examples:
Both are incorrect.  (both answers)
Few stay more than a couple days.  (few tourists)
A few have decided to go on strike.  (a few workers)
Many return to this lake every year.  (many geese)
Several are dropping the class.  (several students)

• Infinitives (just like gerunds) always take a singular verb.

Examples:
To sleep before a test is an important thing to do.
To exercise is essential for a healthy life.
To solve this problem is absolutely necessary.

BUT: 2 or more infinitives joined by and take a plural verb.

To rest and to take your medicine are what you need to do now.

• The titles of books, movies, TV shows, etc. take a singular verb even when the title is plural.

Examples:
Bridge of Spies is a movie directed by Steven Spielberg.
Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets is the latest from J. K. Rawlings.
Cheers was one of the most popular shows of the 1980s.

There is really no difference between the modals may, might and could when you’re expressing possibility.  In the following examples, you can substitute any of these three modals.  The verb that follows these modals is in the simple form.

May:

Examples:
They say it may rain tomorrow. (It’s possible that it will rain.)
The jury may decide that he’s innocent.
That may be true, but I don’t think so.  (It’s possible that it is true.)
(Note: may and be are both verbs, but maybe is an adverb and cannot be used in this sentence.)

In the negative, may not means that it’s possible that something is not true.

Examples:
They may not be in the classroom now.  (It’s possible that they aren’t in the classroom now.)
It may not work, but you can try.  (It’s possible that it won’t work.)
(Note:  The negative of may is never mayn’t.  It is always may not.)

Might:

Examples:
I might be late for the meeting tomorrow.
He might have some extra money he could lend you.
It might snow this Saturday..

In the negative, might not means that it’s possible that something is not true.

Examples:
He might not know the answer.  (It’s possible that he doesn’t know the answer.)
Her mother said she might not come to the party.  (It’s possible that she won’t come to the party.)
(Note:  In standard English the negative of might is might not, not mightn’t.)

Could:

Examples:
She’s not here yet.  She could be stuck in traffic.
This blog could make you famous.
This could take a while, so come back tomorrow.

In the negative, could not has a different meaning than may not or might not.  It means that it’s impossible that something is true, NOT it’s possible that something isn’t true.

Examples:
He could not remember her name.  (It was impossible for him to remember her name.)
We couldn’t stay long because we had to study for a test.  (It was impossible for us to stay long.)

Must be and have to be are used for a strong possibility.  They are used when making a strong guess based on evidence.

Must be:

Examples:
You’ve been driving all night.  You must be tired.  (evidence = you’ve been driving all night.)
He’s not at work this week.  He must be on vacation.  (evidence = he’s not at work.)
She must be in love.  I’ve never seen her so happy.  (evidence = she’s so happy.)

In the negative, must not is used for a negative guess based on evidence.  It can be used with verbs other than be.

Examples:
I must not be very smart.  I can’t figure out this problem.  (evidence = I can’t figure out this problem.)
I called her, but she didn’t answer.  Her phone must not work.  (evidence = she didn’t answer.)

Have to be:

Examples:
He has to be crazy to make the same mistake again.
They have to be very thirsty after their long walk in the sun.
I have to be out of my mind to listen to you again.

In the negative, do/does not have to is no longer about a guess based on evidence.  It is about not being necessary.

Examples:
He doesn’t have to help clean up.  (It’s not necessary for him to help clean up.)
We don’t have to go to school today.  It’s closed.  (It’s not necessary for us to go to school today.)

Requests are used when you want someone to do something for you.  The modals can, could, will and would are used as in the following examples.  There is no difference between them, which means that you can use any of these words and it’s the same.  Please can be added to make your request more polite but is not necessary.

Can you, Can I:

Can you tell me when the store closes?
Can you please help me find my dog?

Can I borrow $20, please?
Can I see some identification, please?

Could you, Could I:

Could you give me your email address?
Could you tell me the time, please?

Could I get a ride home, please?
Could I meet with you tomorrow afternoon?

Will you:

Will you give me a ride downtown, please?
Will you please pass me the salt?

Would you:

Would you please stop making all that noise?
Would you sit down here next to me?

(Notice that the verb after all these modals is in the simple form.)

Here are other ways you can make a request:

Would you mind:

Would you mind closing the door on your way out?
Would you mind turning down the music a little?
(Notice that the verb after would you mind is a gerund (-ing))

I would like:

I would like you to join me for dinner.
I would like another cup of tea, please.
NOT:  I want another cup of tea, please. (This is a little impolite)

I’d (really) appreciate it if you can / could / will / would.

Really is optional.

I’d really appreciate it if you can lend me a little money until payday.
I’d appreciate it if you could let me use your car this Friday.
I’d really appreciate it if you will wait for me.
I would appreciate it if you wouldn’t text me all the time.

You can also drop the modal, but you must put the following verb in the simple past tense.

I’d appreciate it if you dropped me off downtown.
I would appreciate it if you waited for me outside.

Conditionals – advanced

Now that you’re familiar with Conditionals O, I, and II, let’s look at the more advanced Conditionals.

The past conditional, also known as conditional III or the past unreal:

This conditional is used when someone wishes they had done something earlier to change a result they don’t like.  They are often saying that they are sorry that the result is bad.  In this kind of conditional the truth is the opposite of the condition.

The pattern is:  past perfect in the if clause, and would have + past participle in the main clause.

Examples:
If you had called me last night, I would have come over right away.
(The truth is that you didn’t call me, and that’s why I didn’t come over.)

If Jenny had studied harder for the test, she wouldn’t have failed it.
(The truth is that Jenny didn’t study very hard for the test, and that’s why she failed it.)

If Jason had set his alarm, he wouldn’t have been late to class.
(The truth is that he didn’t set his alarm, and that’s why he was late to class.)

If they had been on time, they would have heard about the room change.
(The truth is that they were late, so they didn’t hear about the room change.)

To make any of these conditionals negative, put not, or another negative word such as never, hardly, hardly ever, seldom or rarely between the first two verbs.

Examples:
If he hadn’t been honest, he wouldn’t have told the police anything.
If she had never seen a kangaroo, she would hardly have known what they look like.
If her boyfriend hadn’t lived in Vancouver, she would rarely have gone there.

With the word would and had, you can shorten them both to ‘d, and with have, you can shorten it to ‘ve.

Example:
If we‘d been on time, we‘d have heard about the room change.
OR:  If we‘d been on time, we would‘ve heard about the room change.

But with the negative not (n’t), don’t shorten had or would:

Example:
If we hadn’t been on time, we wouldn’t have heard about the room change.

Remember that in all these examples if the if clause is before the main clause, there’s a comma ( , ) at the end of that clause.  If the if clause is after the main clause, then no comma is used.

Examples:
I wouldn’t have fallen asleep if the movie had been more interesting.
If I had won the lottery, I would’ve traveled around the world first class .
I would have lived in a better apartment if I had had more money.
If you had called me that night, I would have come over right away.

There are other modal verbs that can be used instead of would, such as could (ability) and might (possibility).

Examples:
If she had studied harder, she would have passed the test.
If she had studied harder, she could have passed the test.
If she had studied harder, she might have passed the test.

There are other ways to make conditional sentences, but these are more formal and less often used.

In Conditional I if can be replaced by should.  

Examples:
If you’re in town on the third, you can come to my party.
Should you be in town on the third, you can come to my party.

If it rains, we’ll have to cancel the picnic.
Should it rain, we’ll have to cancel the picnic.

BUT:  If the conditional is negative, do not use should.

Example:
If it’s not too expensive, I can come with you.
NOT:  Should it not be too expensive, I can come with you.

In Conditional III if can be dropped, but the verb must be inverted.

Examples:
If she had been on time, we could have seen the beginning of the movie.
Had she been on time, we could have seen the beginning of the movie.

If I had remembered her birthday, I would have bought her a present.
Had I remembered her birthday, I would have bought her a present.

If he hadn’t been so sick, he might not have stayed in bed all day.
Had he not been so sick, he might not have stayed in bed all day.

There’s one last thing about Conditionals O, I, and II.  You can use unless instead of if, but the sentence must be opposite.

Conditional O examples:
If I don’t get enough sleep, I feel tired the next day.
Unless I get enough sleep, I feel tired the next day.

If he is nice to her, she is nice to him.
Unless he is mean to her, she is nice to him.

Conditional I examples:
If you lend me some money, I can buy an iPhone.
Unless you lend me some money, I can’t buy an iPhone.

If you don’t tell me the truth, I won’t help you.
Unless you tell me the truth, I won’t help you.

Conditional II examples:
I told them that if we all worked together, we could finish by midnight.
I told them that unless we all worked together, we couldn’t finish by midnight.

If I were rich, I would send some money to my parents.
Unless I were poor, I would send some money to my parents.

Here is a review of all 4 conditionals:

General conditional  (Conditional O):

If it rains, I take my umbrella.
Unless it rains, I don’t take my umbrella.

Future conditional  (Conditional I):

If it rains tomorrow, I’ll take my umbrella.
Should it rain tomorrow, I’ll take my umbrella.
Unless it rains tomorrow, I won’t take my umbrella.

Present conditional  (Conditional II):

If it rained, I would take my umbrella.
Unless it rained, I wouldn’t take my umbrella.

Past conditional  (Conditional III):

If it had rained, I would have taken my umbrella.
Had it rained, I would have taken my umbrella.

Offers are used to say what someone is willing to do for someone else.  The other person can accept the offer or refuse it.  Offers are always in the present because they require an answer.  To make an offer, you can use the modals:  would, can, could, may, shall, and will.  After any modal the following verb must always be in the simple form.  Following are examples of offers using these modals and positive and negative responses to these offers.  Whether it is accepted or not, it is customary to thank the person for the offer.

Would you like + noun:

Examples:
Would you like something to drink?
Yes, that would be very nice.  Thank you.

Would you like a napkin?
No thank you.  I’ve already got one.

Would you like + infinitive:

Examples:
Would you like me to read you a story?
Yes, please.

Would you like to come with us to the coffee shop?
I’m sorry.  I’ve got a lot of work to do.  Maybe next time.

Can I:  [What can I, How can I]

Can I help you?
Yes, could you tell me where the bookstore is?

Can I bring something to the party?
That’s not necessary, but thank you for the offer.

What can I do for you?
You could set the table if you don’t mind.

How can I help you?
I’d like to see your winter boots, please.

I could:

I could give you the rest of the day off.
Thank you.  I appreciate that so much.

I could stay with you while you’re sick.
Thanks for the offer, but I think I’ll be okay.

May I:

May I give you some advice?
I’d appreciate that.

May I be of assistance?
No, I can handle this, but thank you.

Shall I / we:

Shall we look for your glasses?
That’s a good idea.  Thanks for your help.

Shall I call you a cab?
No thanks.  I think I’ll take the bus home.

I will:

I will bring some beer to the barbecue.
Thanks, and I’ll get us a couple steaks.

I will help with the planning.
That’s not necessary.  Everything is already done.