The formation of the future continuous (sometimes called the future progressive) is:  subject + will + be + verb+ing

Examples:

I will be sleeping
They will be studying
We will be eating

This verb tense is a 4th way to indicate a future event.  There are some differences between all these different ways, but sometimes 2 or more ways can be used with no difference in meaning.

The first way is with will:  I will run in the Boston Marathon this year.
The 2^nd way is with be going to:  I’m going to run in the Boston Marathon this year.
The 3^rd way is with the present continuous:  I’m running in the Boston Marathon this year.
The 4^th way is with the future continuous:  I will be running in the Boston Marathon this year.

There is also a 5^th way, and that is by replacing “will” with “be going to” in the future continuous.  I call this the be going to future continuous:  I’m going to be running in the Boston Marathon this year.

The future continuous is used in 3 situations:

A.  It’s used for actions that are already happening at some future time.

Examples:

At this time next week, I’ll be lying on the beach in Los Cabos.
Next year, we’ll be traveling around Asia.
This evening she’ll be using the computer.

B. The future continuous is also used for future actions that have been planned. It has the same meaning as “going to,” the present continuous, and “be going to,“ future continuous.

Examples:

I’ll be going downtown later today.
I’m going to go downtown later today.
I’m going downtown later today.
I‘m going to be going downtown later today

He’ll be studying for the IELTS exam all next month.
He’s going to study for the IELTS exam all next month.
He’s studying for the IELTS exam all next month.
He‘s going to be studying for the IELTS exam all next month.

We’ll be visiting Aunt Laurie and Uncle Tim this summer.
We’re going to visit Aunt Laurie and Uncle Tim this summer.
We’re visiting Aunt Laurie and Uncle Tim this summer.
We‘re going to be visiting Aunt Laurie and Uncle Tim this summer.

C.  When used as a question, the future continuous and the be going to future continuous asks about someone’s plans because we want something.

Examples:

Will you be using the computer this evening?  I want to use it to do some research.
Are you going to be using the computer this evening?

Will they be staying the whole weekend?  I don’t want to share my bedroom for too long.
Are they going to be staying the whole weekend?

Will I be playing defense in tomorrow’s game?  I want to play defense.
Am I going to be playing defense in tomorrow’s game?

Conjunctions are words that are used to connect things.  They are used to connect 2 or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs as well as independent clauses, adjective clauses,  adverb clauses, noun clauses, prepositional phrases,  infinitive phrases, and gerund phrases.  

The most common conjunctions are and, but, or and so.  We’ll look at these four first.  The more advanced conjunctions are  for, yet and nor, which we’ll look at later.

Let’s start with and, the most common conjunction, to see how it connects things.  Sometimes both can be used with and but only with 2 single words such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

And connects:

2 independent clauses:

She likes living in her own apartment, and she enjoys the freedom.
Note:  There’s a comma between the 2 clauses when there’s a subject (she) after and.
However, if there’s no subject after and, then there’s no comma.
She likes living in her own apartment and enjoys the freedom.

2 or more nouns:

John and his sister both have red hair.
He plays basketball, soccer, hockey and tennis.
(Note:  There’s a comma ( , ) after each noun, but there’s no comma before and.)

2 or more verbs:

She eats and talks at the same time.
All he does is watch TV, play video games and sleep.

2 or more adjectives:

She is both hardworking and creative.
He’s tall, thin and fast.

2 or more adverbs:

She works quickly and efficiently.
He went into battle boldly, swiftly and forcefully.

2 or more adjective clauses:

She is a girl whose parents are rich and whose trust fund is large.
He only buys things that are unique and have value.

2 adverb clauses:

They brush their teeth after they eat breakfast and before they go to bed.
When I’m lonely and thinking about home, I phone my parents.

2 noun clauses:

What she said and what I heard were two different things.
He planned where they were going and what they would do.

2 or more prepositional phrases:

They’re giving away free samples in the mall and on the street.
He looked under the bed, in the closet and on top of the dresser.

2 infinitive phrases:

To understand the lecture and to take good notes, she had to concentrate.
To stay up all night and study for the test, he had to drink several energy drinks.

2 gerund phrases:

Two of my favorite activities are staying up late and watching old movies.
Playing in all the games and scoring the most points was the highlight of her year.

You can even connect 2 things that aren’t alike:

He did the job discretely and with finesse.
The man was strong and in a bad mood.

But connects things that are opposite or that don’t usually go together.  When the second thing is negative, put but not.

But connects:

2 independent clauses:

I’m going to Chicago, but I don’t know anybody there.
She likes acting but also wants to direct.
(Note:  no comma before but because the subject she has been dropped in the second independent clause.)

2 nouns:

They like the beach but not the water.
She knows a lot about literature but not poetry.

2 verbs:

I swim but don’t dive.
She‘s here but doesn’t want to talk to you.

2 adjectives:

He’s strong but not athletic.
The food was cold but delicious.

2 adverbs:

They did the job quickly but well.
She worked slowly but surely.

2 adjective clauses:

He’s a man who has lots of acquaintances but who has no real friends.
She’s a person whose salary is high but whose work is easy.

2 adverb clauses:

Robert stayed home not because he felt a little sick but because he had a test.
She came down to the kitchen before she brushed her teeth but not before she put on her makeup.

2 noun clauses:

She told him what she had planned but not how she was going to do it.
He told me why he was leaving but not where he was going.

2 prepositional phrases:

We checked in all the classrooms but not in the library.
We work from Monday to Thursday but not on Friday or the weekend.

2 infinitive phrases:

He went outside not to get some fresh air, but to have a cigarette.
I’m studying English not primarily to get into university but to be able to speak to my friends.

2 gerund phrases:

Going to bed early but not falling asleep has been his problem for years.
We like having parties but not cleaning up afterwards.

2 different things:

I write but not very well.
I swim but only in swimming pools.

Or connects choices or possibilities.  It is often used with either, whether, or if, which are put before the first choice or possibility.

Or connects:

2 independent clauses:

I want ice cream for dessert, or maybe I’ll have some pie.
She is either going to tell the truth, or she’ll continue to lie.

2 nouns:

His friend is either a teacher or a social worker.  I forget.
Roses or carnations would be an appropriate gift.

2 verbs:

Whether she passes or fails is her choice.
I couldn’t tell if he was joking or being serious.

2 adjectives:

She can’t decide whether she’s angry or amused.
They’re either stupid or naive.

2 adverbs:

He picked the numbers skillfully or, as my brother says, luckily.
She writes beautifully or terribly, depending on how she feels.

2 adjective clauses:

That’s the city either where he was born or where he went to school.  I forget.
That’s the sort of news that either makes you very hopeful or that makes you sad.

2 adverb clauses:

I lost my wallet either when I was in his office or when I was in the cab coming home.
He got the job either because he was the best qualified or because he was related to the boss.

2 noun clauses:

What he said or what he meant to say is that he’s sorry.
Where she lives or who she sees is none of your business.

2 prepositional phrases:

I left the keys either on the mantle or on the hall table.
We can drive on the road or off the road in this truck.

2 infinitive phrases:

Did you take this job to get rich or to help other people?
To be patient or to be proactive is the choice you now have.

2 gerund phrases:

Their options were doing nothing or trying to solve the problem.
Going out for dinner or making dinner at home are our choices.

2 different things:

She is lying either for a good reason or because she’s afraid.
He doesn’t read for the information or to be entertained.

So connects a reason and a result. 

So only connects:

2 independent clauses:

The weather report is for rain, so we’ll have to cancel the picnic.
Everyone arrived before 8:00, so the meeting started on time.

(The first clause is the reason and the second clause is the result.  You can also join these clauses with because.)

We’ll have to cancel the picnic because the weather report is for rain.
The meeting started on time because everyone arrived before 8:00.

Here is an exercise for these 4 conjunctions:

Now, let’s look at the last 3 conjunctions:  for, yet and nor.  They are more advanced connectors and not as often used as the first 4.

For connects results and reasons.  It is used just like ‘because’, but it always has a comma before it.  It is always used in the middle of the sentence, not at the beginning.

For only connects:

2 independent clauses:

I stayed away, for I was told that I wasn’t welcome.
He brought her flowers, for it was their anniversary that day.
[The first clause is the result; the second clause is the reason.]

You can also say:

He brought her flowers because it was their anniversary that day.
Because it was their anniversary that day, he brought her flowers.

BUT never start a sentence with for.

Yet connects things that are opposite or that don’t usually go together.  It is used just like ‘but‘, and can connect many things.  Just like but, yet is sometimes used with not (yet not, yet he didn’t…)  However, don’t confuse yet not with not yet, which means not at this time but later. 

Yet connects:

2 independent clauses:

We’ve been working all morning, yet we’re no closer to being done. 
She comes to class everyday yet doesn’t do well on the tests.
[Note:  no comma before yet because the subject she has been dropped in the second independent clause.]

2 verbs:

He studies yet continues to get poor marks.
They went to bed, yet they didn’t fall asleep for yours.

2 adjectives:

We’re tired yet anxious to finish this project.
The sofa was modern yet comfortable.

2 adverbs:

He works quickly yet carefully.
They seem excited yet afraid to get started.

2 adjective clauses:

It’s the kind of present that looks expensive yet that doesn’t cost too much.
That’s the city where I lived, yet not where I went to school.

2 adverb clauses:

He kissed her when he got home yet not when she left in the morning.
He could watch TV after he came home yet not until he had finished his homework.

2 noun clauses:

What she said yet not what she meant was the topic of conversation.
He could eat what he wanted yet not when he wanted to.

2 prepositional phrases:

There was fire damage on the ceiling yet not on the walls.
He put the date on the calendar yet not in his smart phone where he usually puts such things.

2 infinitive phrases:

To work all day yet to accomplish very little was frustrating.
They were allowed to speak to him yet not to look directly at him.

2 gerund phrases: 

Studying for hours yet not passing the mid-term made him frustrated.
She prefers going to bed late yet getting up early the next day.

2 different things:

He likes drinking his coffee black yet with plenty of sugar.
She was in a good mood yet not ready to listen to him.

Nor connects things that are negative.  It is often used with neither.  With two independent clauses nor requires the following verb to be inverted, just like a question.  Also, nor is not followed by other negative words like not or never.  With single words, nouns, verbs, etc., nor must be used with neither, which goes before the first of the two things connected.

Nor connects:

2 independent clauses:

I don’t like spaghetti, nor do I like lasagna.
[I don’t like spaghetti, and I don’t like lasagna.]
Note: do I like is the inverted and positive form of I (don’t) like.

She doesn’t waste her money, nor does she waste her time.
[She doesn’t waste money, and she doesn’t waste time.]
Note: does she waste is the inverted and positive form of she (doesn’t) wait.

2 nouns:

Neither John nor his brother knew about the wedding.
He chose neither the Toyota nor the Nissan.

2 verbs:

She neither smokes nor drinks alcohol.
We neither need nor want your assistance.

2 adjectives:

They’re neither rich nor poor.
I’m neither angry nor disappointed that you dropped out of school.

2  adverbs:

He fixed the sink neither quickly nor correctly.
She studied neither hard nor long for the final exam.

Note:  2 adjective clauses cannot be connected with nor.

2 adverb clauses:

She doesn’t hug him when he leaves nor when he gets home.
He doesn’t brush his teeth after he eats nor before he goes to bed.

2 noun clauses:

He wouldn’t tell us what she said nor where she went.
She didn’t know where she was nor what time it was.

2 prepositional phrases:

His backpack wasn’t by the front door nor on the front porch.
She didn’t play sports in the fall nor in the winter.

2 infinitive phrases:

We didn’t want to get you too excited nor to frighten you.
Management didn’t want a gym for their own use nor for the use of the staff.

2 gerund phrases: 

She doesn’t like writing letters nor sending emails.
Neither apologizing to her nor sending her flowers had any effect.

2 different things:

She wouldn’t tell me her phone number nor where she lived.
His essay was neither well written nor in the correct format.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

 

To express necessity (something must be done) or obligation (someone must do something), you can use must, have to, have got to, need, or had better.  Let’s look at these one at a time.

Must is a modal and is always followed by a verb in the simple form.  The simple form is the infinitive without the ‘to’, for example: be, do, go, have.

Examples:
I must remember to pick up my aunt at the airport this Friday.
Must you always chew with your mouth open?

In the negative mustn’t (must not) and must never mean it is important that you don’t do it.  It’s against the law, against the rules or against what you think is right.

Examples:
You mustn’t park your car here.
You must never lie to your mother.

Have to is another modal, and it is used the same way as must.  There is no difference in meaning.  Like must, have to is followed by a verb in the simple form.

Examples:
Everyone has to be here on time tomorrow morning.
Everyone must be here on time tomorrow morning.

We have to set up the room for a meeting.
We must set up the room for a meeting.

However don’t have to does not mean the same thing as must not.  Don’t have to means that it is allowed but not necessary.  There is no rule against it.

Examples:
You have a car, so you don’t have to take the bus anymore.
[You can take the bus if you want to, but it’s not necessary.]
[You cannot say: ‘You have a car, so you mustn’t take the bus anymore’ because it’s still allowed, and you can take the bus if you want to.]

You mustn’t forget to renew your driver’s license.
[It is necessary that you don’t forget.]
[It makes no sense to say:  You don’t have to forget to renew your driver’s license. because you have no choice.  You must remember.]

NOTE:  English speakers also use can’t the same as mustn’t.

Examples:
She can’t talk to me like that.  It’s disrespectful.
I’m sorry.  You can’t skateboard in this park.  It’s against the law.

Another difference between must and have to is that must is never used in the past.  You must only use had to.

Examples:
The whole family had to go to the hospital after the accident.
She had to speak to him before he left the city.

The last difference between must and have to is that must can never be used with another modal, but have to can.

Examples:
We may have to leave early today.
She will have to call me as soon as she arrives.
I would have to ask her where she was last night.

Have got to is just another way to say have to.  It is mostly used in it’s contracted form ‘ve got to or ‘s got to.  It is always followed by a verb in the simple form.

Examples:
I’ve got to tell you that’s the best meal I’ve had in a long time.
She’s got to start spending more time on her studies.
We’ve got to get up really early tomorrow morning.

Have got to is only used in the present or future but never in the past.  In the past use had to only.

Example:
I’ve got to go now.
I’ve got to go there tomorrow.
I had to go there last weekend.

Need is another verb you can use for necessity.  It can be used in different tenses but is always followed by the infinitive.

Examples:
If I need to contact you, what’s your number?
I needed to make her understand.
She has needed to visit her parents every year since they got married..

Had better is a little stronger than the others because it implies that something bad will happen if the person does not do it.  It is only used in the present or future and is followed by a verb in the simple form.  Sometimes the bad result is stated after or, but it’s often dropped because it’s not necessary to say.

Examples:
He’d better remember to buy her something nice for her birthday, or she’ll never speak to him again.
She had better be on time for her interview, or there’s no way she’ll get the job.
You’d better wash your hands after touching that fish.  [or you’ll get food poisoning.]
It’s after midnight.  We’d better turn down the music.  [or someone may call the police.]

Study this page again, and when you’re ready, do the following exercise.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

 

The present perfect continuous is used for an action that started in the past and continues to the present.  In other words, the action is still ongoing.  The present perfect can also be used, but can sometimes be confusing because it is also used in 2 other situations.  Therefore, it’s a good idea if you have a choice between the present perfect and the present perfect continuous that you choose the present perfect continuous.

This tense is formed with 3 verbs: the auxiliary have or has, the past participle been, and the present participle (verb + ing)

The words for and since are often used with this tense

Examples:
They have been living in that house for twenty years. (and they still do (ongoing))
She’s been taking piano lessons since she was five years old.  (and she still does (ongoing))

Watch out for the word for, and use the simple past if the action is finished.

Examples:
She lived in California for ten years.  (She doesn’t live there anymore (not ongoing))
I babysat the neighbor’s daughter for two weeks last summer.  (This happened last summer (not ongoing))

Also, use the present perfect continuous with all day, all week, and any other time periods that are not yet finished. If the time period is finished, however, then use the simple past.

Examples:
We’ve been waiting all day to hear the results.  (It’s still the same day.)
We waited all day to hear the results.  (It’s now the following day.)
I have been trying to call her all week, but she isn’t answering her phone.  (It’s still that same week.)
I tried to call her all last week, but she didn’t answer her phone.  (It’s now the following week.)
Have you been sleeping all morning?  (It’s still morning.)
Did you sleep all morning?  (It’s now the afternoon.)

Also, use the present perfect continuous with the question how long.

Examples:
How long have you been playing the piano?
How long has she been modeling?

When you use these verbs, do not use the present perfect continuous but use the present perfect only:

be                believe           belong          exist             forget            hate

have*          hear                know             like                love             need

own            possess           prefer           remember     see           understand        want

* when “have” means “possess,” not when “have” means “experience.”

If you have these words: so far, to date, and up to now, use only the present perfect even though the verbs seem ongoing.

Examples:
So far we’ve made $160 washing cars.  (and we’re still washing cars (ongoing))
To date I’ve seen six of his films.  (and I will continue to watch more (ongoing))
The dogs have been very quiet up to now.  (and they are still quiet (ongoing))

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

 

If you want your writing and especially your speaking to get better, learn how to use reported speech.  It raises your level of English a lot, and you’ll know this grammar probably better than most English speakers.  Reported speech, or indirect speech, is used when you are reporting (telling someone) what someone else said.  This is different than direct speech where you use quotation marks.  Let’s look at the difference:

Examples:
She said, “ I’m bored and I’m going to my friend’s house.”  (Direct speech)
She said that she was bored and that she was going to her friend’s house.  (Indirect speech)

The difference in these two examples is that in direct speech the words inside the quotation marks (“  ”) are the same words that came out of the person’s mouth.  They are exactly her words.  In reported speech, you say what the person said in your words.  Therefore, some of the words are different, but the meaning is the same.

Some of the words are different because these words were probably said in the past and in a different place.  Therefore, the words that change are pronouns, possessive adjectives, and verb tenses.  Notice in the examples above that “I” changes to “she” and ‘m (am) changes to “was.”  This is because the reporter of the speech is not the person who originally said the words.  Therefore, I, who is the person speaking, changes to she, who is the person reported on.  In the same way, the original speaker talked in the present tense (am), but when the reporter reports the speech, he or she is usually doing it later, so the verb tense cannot be present.  It must be past (was).  My, which belongs to the person talking, changes to her from my point of view.

In reported statements, that can be dropped anytime before a subject and verb, so I will put it in parentheses – (that).  When you see this word in the examples that follow, remember that you can drop it if you want to.

 

There are several reporting verbs that you can use.  The 2 most common are said and told.

Use said for the reporting verb if you don’t have a person or people after it:

Examples:
He said (that) he arrived before noon.
They said (that) they had a good time at our party.
(Sometimes people say:  They said to us (that) they had a good time at our party, but this is far less common.)

Use told if you have a person or people after it.  This person or people can be a pronoun (me, you, him, her, us, them) or a noun (our parents, the police, etc.):

Examples:
We told our parents (that) we were coming straight home.
They told us (that) they needed more time to prepare.

 

Here are some more examples of statements in reported speech:

She said, “I study hard because I want to pass.”  (quoted speech)
She said (that) she studied hard because she wanted to pass.  (reported speech)

He told her, “I’m bored, so I want to do something interesting.”  (quoted speech)
He told her (that) he was bored, so he wanted to do something interesting.  (reported speech)

 

If the time hasn’t changed when you report the speech, then you don’t have to change the present tense to the past, but you can if you want to, and there’s no difference in meaning.

Examples:
He said, “I usually eat a quick breakfast and then get a cup of coffee on my way to work.”  (quoted speech)
He said (that) he usually eats a quick breakfast and then gets a cup of coffee on his way to work.  (reported speech)
He said (that) he usually ate a quick breakfast and then got a cup of coffee on his way to work.  (reported speech)

She said, “I often listen to music when I study.”  (quoted speech)
She said (that) she often listens to music when she studies.  (reported speech)
She said (that) she often listened to music when she studied.  (reported speech)

He said, “It rains when there are cumulus clouds in the sky.”  (quoted speech)
He said (that) it rains when there are cumulus clouds in the sky.  (reported speech)
He said (that) it rained when there were cumulus clouds in the sky.  (reported speech)

 

These verb tenses change in reported speech:

present simple –>  past simple

Example:
He said, “I like to eat watermelon in the summertime.”  (quoted speech)
He said (that) he liked to eat watermelon in the summertime.  (reported speech)

present continuous –>  past continuous

Example:
They said, “We are putting together a basketball team.”  (quoted speech)
They said (that) they were putting together a basketball team.  (reported speech)

These modals change:

can –> could

Example:
She said, “I can help you after work.”  (quoted speech)
She said (that) she could help them after work.  (reported speech)

will –> would

Example:
He said, “I’ll meet you at the library.”  (quoted speech)
He said (that) he would meet me at the library.  (reported speech)

may –> might

Example:
I said, “You may want to bring a coat with you.”  (quoted speech)
I said (that) you might want to bring a coat with you.  (reported speech)

have to –> had to

Example:
They said, “We have to finish the project before Friday.”  (quoted speech)
They said (that) they had to finish the project before Friday.  (reported speech)

must –> had to

Example:
We said, “We must win this game for the coach.”  (quoted speech)
We said (that)  we had to win the game for the coach.  (reported speech)

 

These modals don’t change:

could

Example:
She told us, “I could remember everyone’s name.”  (quoted speech)
She told us (that) she could remember everyone’s name.  (reported speech)

would

Example:
I told him, “You would sleep better with the lights off.”  (quoted speech)
I told him (that) he would sleep better with the lights off.  (reported speech)

should

Example:
The coach told the team, “Everyone should get a good night’s sleep.”  (quoted speech)
The coach told the team (that) everyone should get a good night’s sleep.  (reported speech)

 

The easiest kind of reported speech is when someone gives a command.   To report a command, use told and change the verb to the infinitive (with to).

Examples:
Their mother said to them, “Do your homework before dinner.”  (quoted speech)
Their mother told them to do their homework before dinner.  (reported speech)

He told his brother, “Wait for me after school.”  (quoted speech)
He told his brother to wait for him after school.  (reported speech)

 

If the command is negative, then put not before the infinitive.

Examples:
She said, “Don’t forget to lock the door.”  (quoted speech)
She told me not to forget to lock the door.  (reported speech)

Her mother said, “Don’t wear your good shoes to school.”  (quoted speech)
Her mother told her not to wear her good shoes to school.  (reported speech)

 

You can also use an infinitive when you report a request, which uses can, could, will or would.  Use the reporting verb asked.

Examples:
My friend said to me, ”Could you please help me get started?”  (quoted speech)
My friend asked me to help him get started.  (reported speech)

Susan said, “Will you open the salsa jar for me?”  (quoted speech)
Susan asked me to open the salsa jar for her.  (reported speech)

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

Reported speech can be more complicated than I showed you on the Reported speech – basic page.  For example, there are more words that change besides pronouns, possessive adjectives, and verb tenses.    Place words and time words also change. 

To review, the first kind of reported speech is with statements.   All the examples below are statements.  Later we’ll look at imperatives, questions and other types of sentences.

In a statement that can be dropped anytime before a subject and verb, so I will put it in parentheses – (that).  When you see this word in the examples that follow, remember that you can drop it if you want to.

It’s important to know which words you have to change in reported speech.

These verb tenses change:

present simple –>  past simple

Example:
He said, “I like to eat watermelon in the summertime.”
He said (that) he liked to eat watermelon in the summertime..

present continuous –>  past continuous

Example:
They said, “We are putting together a basketball team.”
They said (that) they were putting together a basketball team.

past simple –>  past perfect

Example:
He told them, “I went to our usual pub, but none of you were there.”
He told them (that) he had gone to their usual pub, but (that) none of them had been there.

present perfect –>  past perfect

Example:
He said, “My family have lived in this area for generations.”
He said (that) his family had lived in that area for generations.

present perfect continuous –>  past perfect continuous

Example:
They said, “We’ve been practicing for hours.”
They said (that) they’d been practicing for hours.

Past continuous –> past perfect continuous

Example:
She said, “I was working in the garden all afternoon.”
She said (that) she had been working in the garden all afternoon.

 

However, these verb tenses don’t change:

past perfect –>  past perfect

Example:
I said to her, “I had forgotten to lock the door.”
I told her (that) I had forgotten to lock the door.

past perfect continuous –>  past perfect continuous

Example:
She said, “I had been wondering about that for a long time.”
She said (that) she had been wondering about that for a long time.

 

The following modals change:

will –>  would

Example:
He told me, “I’ll be there at 11:00 at the very latest.”
He told me (that) he would be here at 11:00 at the very latest.

can –>  could

Example:
She said, “I can be at the meeting tomorrow morning.”
She said (that) she could be at the meeting tomorrow morning.

may –>  might

Example:
She said, “I may be late, but I’ll be there.”
She said (that) she might be late, but (that) she’d be there.

have to  –> had to

Example:
He told her, “I have to go to New York on business.”
He told her (that) he had to go to New York on business.

must –> had to

Example:
She said, “I must see the dentist sometime this month.”
She said (that) she had to see the dentist sometime this month.

 

However, these modals don’t change:

might –>  might

Example:
He told them, “There’s one thing I might do for you.”
He told them (that) there was one thing he might do for them.

could –>  could

Example:
He said, “I couldn’t come yesterday because I lost my car keys.”
He said (that) he couldn’t come yesterday because he had lost his car keys.

would –>  would

Example:
I told them, “I would visit more often if I could.”
I told them (that) I would visit more often if I could.

should –>  should

Example:
She said to him, “I think I should go stay with my aunt in Toronto.”
She told him (that) she thought she should go stay with her aunt in Toronto

ought to –>  ought to

Example:
Mother told the children,” You ought to keep your rooms clean.”
Mother told the children (that) they ought to keep their rooms clean.

had better –>  had better

Example:
I said to her, “You’d better not be late for your appointment.”
I said (that) she’d better not be late for her appointment.

used to –>  used to

Example:
He said, “I used to be a fireman in Chicago.”
He said (that) he used to be a fireman in Chicago.

 

Place words often change.  However, if the place hasn’t changed from the direct speech to the reported speech, then don’t change these words:

here –>  there
this –>  that
these –>  those

Examples:
He said, “I’m supposed to meet him here later.”
He told me (that) he was supposed to meet him there later.
(I’m in a different place when I report the speech.)

They said to us, “You can use this room for a meeting.
They said (that) we could use that room for a meeting.
(We’re in a different place when we report the speech.)

He said, “I read these books when I was young.”
He said (that) he had read those books when he was young.
(The person is in a different place when he reports the speech.)

Time words often change.  However, if the time is still the same at the time of the reporting, then don’t change the time word.

next –>  the following
last –>  the previous / the ____ before
today –> that day
tomorrow –>  the next day / the following day
yesterday –> the previous day / the day before
now –>  then
in ____ –> ____ later
this –>  that

Examples:
She said, “The store is having a sale next Friday.”
She told  us (that) the store was having a sale the following Friday.

I said to him, “I didn’t sleep very well last night.”
I told him (that) I hadn’t slept very well the previous night (the night before.)

He told me, “My girlfriend is leaving for Los Angeles today.”
He told me (that) his girlfriend was leaving for Los Angeles that day.

They told us, “We’re having a game tomorrow at the park.”
They told us (that) they were having a game the next day (the following day) at the park.

He said to him, ”I couldn’t find my bus pass yesterday.”
He told him (that) he couldn’t find his bus pass the previous day (the day before.)

I told her, “You have to come with me now.”
I told her (that) she had to come with me then.

She said, “I‘ll be finished in half an hour.”
She said (that) she would be finished half an hour later.

John said, “I can help you this Saturday.”
John said (that) he could help us that Saturday.

 

In addition to statements, there are other kinds of sentences that you can report.

The imperative (commands) is a little different than statements in reported speech.  The verb becomes an infinitive (with to).  Use told for your reporting verb or asked if there is a “please.”

Examples:
I said to her, “Go pick up the kids.”
I told her to go pick up the kids.

He said to them, “Please take your seats.”
He asked them to take their seats.

We said to the team, “Do your best but most of all have fun.”
We told the team to do their best but most of all to have fun.

The nurse said to us, “Please wait here and someone will be with you shortly.”
The nurse asked us to wait here and (that) someone would be with us shortly.

 

Questions are also different in reported speech.

If it is a yes/no or a choice question, then use if.  Always use the reporting verb asked.  Also, there is no inversion of the subject and verb like in a real question.  Also remember to drop the question mark (?) because it’s no longer a question.

Examples:
He said, “Would you like coffee or tea?”  (Choice)
He asked us if we would like coffee or tea.

My neighbor said, “Could you look after my dog for a week?”  (Yes or no)
My neighbor asked me if I could look after her dog for a week.

He said, “Is it on the top or the bottom shelf?”  (Choice)
He asked if it was on the top or the bottom shelf.

He asked her, “Do you live around here?”  (Yes or no)
He asked her if she lived around here.

Notice that there is no subject-verb inversion (would we or could we) in reported questions.  Always put the subject before the verb in reported speech (we would or we could).

 

If it’s an information question (who, what, where, when, why, how), then repeat the question word.  As above, don’t invert the subject and verb.   Again, drop the question mark.

Examples:
She said, “What time is it?”
She asked me what time it was.

He asked her, “Where can I go for coffee around here?”
He asked her where he could go for coffee around there.

He asked me, “Why are you always so tired?”
He asked me why I was always so tired.

We asked him, “How can we find out if we passed or not?”
We asked him how we could find out if we had passed or not.

 

When reporting invitations, there are 2 ways to do it – the regular way or with an infinitive.  Use the reporting verbs invited or asked.  Once again, drop the question mark.

Examples:
She said to him, “Would you like to go on a picnic with us?”
She asked him if he would like to go on a picnic with them.
She invited him to go on a picnic with them.

He said to her, “Would you please not smoke in my car?”
He asked her if she would not smoke in his car..
He asked her not to smoke in his car.
[Note that the not is before to, not after.]

We said to them, “Would you like to come over for coffee?”
We asked them if they would like to come over for coffee.
We invited them to come over for coffee.

 

When reporting advice, there are 2 ways to do it – the regular way or with the infinitive.  Use the reporting verb told or advised.

Examples:
He said to his daughter, “You should clean up a bit before he arrives.”
He told his daughter (that) she should clean up a bit before he arrived.
He advised his daughter to clean up a bit before he arrived.

She told her boyfriend, “You should call me when you arrive in Calgary.”
She told her boyfriend (that) he should call her when he arrived in Calgary.
She advised her boyfriend to call her when he arrived in Calgary.

The teacher said to the students, “You should check your writing for mistakes.”
The teacher told the students (that) they should check their writing for mistakes.
The teacher advised the students to check their writing for mistakes.

 

When reporting requests, do it the regular way or use the infinitive.  The reporting verb is asked.

Examples:
The coach said to the team, “Could you please be on time tomorrow?”
The coach asked the team if they could be on time the following day.
The coach asked the team to be on time the following day.

The man said to us, “Would you please be quiet so I can hear my cellphone.?”
The man asked us if we would please be quiet so he could hear his cellphone.
The man asked us to please be quiet so he could hear his cellphone

I said to him, “Can you help me move on the weekend?”
I asked him if he could help me move on the weekend.
I asked him to help me move on the weekend.

 

When reporting permission given, do it the regular way or use an infinitive.  The reporting verbs to use are told, invited or gave (someone) permission.

Examples:
I said to Jonathan, “You can stay at my place for awhile.”
I told Jonathan (that) he could stay at my place for awhile.
I invited Jonathan to stay at my place for awhile.

He said to his friend, “You can use my bike this afternoon.”
He told his friend (that) he could use his bike that afternoon.”
He gave his friend permission to use his bike that afternoon.

We told them, “You can stay here until the store closes.”
We told them (that) they could stay until the store closed.
We invited them to stay until the store closed.

 

One last thing.  If the reporting verb is in the present tense (say, tell, ask), or if you’re reporting the speech immediately, then make no verb changes.

Examples:
She said, “What time are we going home?”
She asked what time we are going home.  [Immediate reporting.  No change in time or place.]

His friend always tells him, “You would be rich if you worked harder.”
His friend always tells him (that) he would be rich if he worked harder.  [Reporting verb is present tense.]

They asked us, “Will you help us.”
They asked us if we will help them.  [Immediate reporting.]

 

Let’s review:

Statements:

She said, “The rainbow is beautiful.”
She said (that) the rainbow was beautiful.

Imperative:

He told the class, “Take your seats.”
He told the class to take their seats.

Yes/no or choice question:

John said, “Would you please  stop talking.”
John asked them if they would stop talking.

Information question:

They asked me, “When will the game start?”
They asked me when the game would start.

Reporting invitations, advice, requests and permission:

We told them, “You can stay overnight, but you must leave in the morning.
We told them (that) they could stay overnight but they had to leave in the morning.
We invited them to stay overnight but they had to leave in the morning.

Immediate reporting or when the reporting verb is present tense – no verb tense change:

She asks me all the time, “Are you going for a run?”
She asks me all the time if I‘m going for a run.

Study this page again, and when you’re ready, take the following quiz.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

Adjectives and adverbs are similar words but are used differently.  Let’s see how each is used.

Adjectives give more information about a noun (person, place or thing).  They usually have no –ly on the end, except for costly, daily, early, friendly, lovely, monthly, only, timely, weekly, and yearly.  Adjectives are placed before the noun they describe. 

Examples:
There’s an early flight that leaves at 6:00.
Tuesday is the only day I can meet you.
This is a safe place to talk about your feelings.
He cut himself on the sharp edge of the metal.

Adjectives are also placed after the verbs: be, appear, become, feel, look, seem, sound, smell, and taste.  [Notice that there is no action with these verbs.]

Examples:
His uncle is honest.
The road up the mountain appeared long and steep.
I’m feeling a little sick, so I think I’ll stay home.
The decorations for the party look wonderful.
His idea to advertise on-line sounds doable.

Adjectives are also used after make (someone/something).

Examples:
She makes me angry when she does that.
The seafood made everyone ill.
Changing the rules made the game fair for everyone.

Sometimes nouns can also be used as adjectives.

Examples:
There’s a police car parked down the street.
I need to book a hotel room for this weekend.
His father is the school counsellor.
He often plays video games after school.

Past or present participles can also be used as adjectives.

Examples:
The car needed a new steering wheel.
It was a very interesting lecture last night.
They replaced the broken window the following day.
She felt embarrassed to be there.

Adverbs give more information about a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or an independent clause.  Many adverbs are formed by adding –ly to an adjective, such as:  slow – slowly, easy – easily, weak – weakly.  They are placed before the adjective or adverb they modify, but if they end in -ly, they are placed after the verb or before an independent clause.

Examples:
She sings beautifully.
You’re really strong for a girl.
I’m not feeling very well.
Generally, I feel healthy.

Adverbs of frequency, such as always, often, and sometimes, can be placed before the verb.

Examples:
She always waits for me outside the cafeteria.
I often find that people are nice.
They sometimes wonder if we’re a little crazy.

If there are two verbs, the adverb is placed between them.

Examples:
I can really taste the difference between these colas.
She was slowly walking to the exit when I noticed her.
They have stubbornly refused to consider our proposal.

For adverbs that end in –al, like eternal, special, and radical, the ending is –ally (double l).

Examples:
The men were eternally grateful for their rescue.
This car is specially made for handicapped people.
The house was radically different from when he was young.

Some adjectives and adverbs are exactly the same.  They are:  long, far, fast, funny, hard, late, pretty and right.

Examples:
Have you been waiting long?
It’s been a long day.
He can throw the ball far.
It is a far trip to my homeland.
The kids fell asleep pretty fast.
She’s a fast learner.
She dances funny.
That was a funny joke
We all studied hard for the test.
That was a hard lesson to learn.
She comes late every day?
The bus is late again.
The food in the cafeteria is pretty awful.
All the boys think she is pretty.
He did it right.
That’s not the right way

The adjective good and the adverb well can be a problem sometimes.  Use good to modify nouns, and use well to modify verbs and adjectives.

Examples:
She has a good idea for the party.
That soup tasted really good.
I didn’t know you could sing so well.
The trail up the mountain was well used.

To review:  Adjectives and adverbs modify different things.  Adjectives can only modify nouns, but adverbs can modify verbs, as well as adjectives and other adverbs.  The adverb is usually the adjective + ly, but there are exceptions.  Study this page, and when you think you’re ready, take the quiz that follows, and see how well you know this grammar.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

 

Participle adjectives are made from verbs with either an -ing (present participle)  or an -ed (past participle) on the end.  How do you know which one to use?  There are 3 parts to that answer.

First, if the participle adjective is a feeling, then put -ing on the end if something gives you or somebody else that feeling and -ed on the end if you or somebody else have that feeling.  -ING = give the feeling.  -ED = have the feeling

Examples:
That is a boring game.  (The game gives me the feeling of boredom.)
I’m bored with that game.  (I have the feeling of boredom.)
That lecture was interesting.  (The lecture gave me the feeling of interest.)
I was interested in the lecture.  (I had the feeling of interest.)
Her photo was embarrassing.  (The photo gave her that feeling.)
She was embarrassed by the photo.  (She had that feeling.)
The book that he read was depressing.  (The book gave him that feeling.)
He was depressed after reading the book.  (He had that feeling.)

Secondly, there are participle adjectives that are not feelings.  To use these correctly, ask yourself if the object does the verb.  If the answer is yes, then put -ing on the end (present participle.)  If the answer is no, then use the past participle.  Remember that some past participles are irregular and don’t have -ed on the end.

Examples:
The losing team rode home in silence.  (Did the team lose something?  Yes – the game.)
The lost dog was finally found.  (Did the dog lose something?  No.)
He put on two coats in the freezing weather.  (Did the weather freeze something?  Yes – everything outside.)
He tried to warm his frozen hands.  (Did his hands freeze something?  No.)
The circling bees stung him many times.  (Were the bees circling?  Yes – they were circling him.)
The circled words were all misspelled.  (Did the words circle something?  No.)

Thirdly, if something is happening at that same time, then it is the present participle (-ing), but if it happened before, if it was already finished, then it is the past participle (-ed).

Examples:
She heard the sound of boiling water.  (The water was boiling at that time.)
The boiled water was very hot.  (The water had finished boiling.)
The falling snow made driving hazardous.  (The snow was falling at that time.)
The fallen snow was already starting to melt.  (The snow had already fallen.)
The opening curtains made a squeaking sound.  (The curtains were opening.)
The opened curtains signaled that someone was at home..  (The curtains were already open.)

Here is a list of participle adjectives and the verbs they came from:

amaze                                  amazed                                         amazing
amuse                                  amused                                         amusing
annoy                                   annoyed                                       annoying
boil                                         boiled                                            boiling
bore                                       bored                                             boring
circle                                     circled                                           circling
close                                     closed                                            closing
confuse                               confused                                      confusing
delight                                 delighted                                      delightful *
depress                               depressed                                    depressing
disappoint                         disappointed                              disappointing
embarrass                         embarrassed                              embarrassing
excite                                   excited                                           exciting
exhaust                               exhausted                                    exhausting
fall                                         fallen                                               falling
fascinate                            fascinated                                    fascinating
frighten                              frightened                                   frightening
freeze                                  frozen *                                         freezing
frustrate                            frustrated                                    frustrating
horrify                                horrified                                        horrifying
interest                              interested                                    interesting
intimidate                         intimidated                                 intimidating
lose                                       lost                                                   losing
open                                     opened                                          opening
please                                  pleased                                          pleasing
puzzle                                  puzzled                                          puzzling
satisfy                                  satisfied                                        satisfying
scare                                     scared                                            scary *
shock                                    shocked                                        shocking
startle                                  startled                                         startling
surprise                              surprised                                      surprising
terrify                                  terrified                                        terrifying
tire                                        tired                                                tiring
upset                                   upset *                                           upsetting
worry                                  worried                                         worrying

* = irregular forms

Study this lesson, and when you think you’re ready, do the following exercise.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

The difference between it and there is not as hard as you think.  Read this page at least twice or until you understand it, and then take the quiz afterwards to see how you do.

It is always singular and the verb that follows is in the singular form ( ‘s’ on the end in the present tense.)  It is a pronoun which refers to things or actions.

Examples:
Where’s the TV remote control?  It’s on the coffee table.  (It = remote control)
I got a haircut yesterday, but I don’t like it very much.  (it = haircut)
The roadblock was successful because it caught eleven drunk drivers.  (it = roadblock)
I love playing poker.  It’s my favorite activity.  (It = playing poker)
I have to put away my work every night, and I think it’s ridiculous.  (It = putting away my work every night)
We’ve been arguing a lot lately, and it’s getting worse.  (It = arguing)

It is also used with be + adjective + object.  It doesn’t really mean anything but is used as an artificial subject  The real subject is the object of the sentence.

Examples:
It is important to clean up after we finish.
To clean up after we finish is important.
It’s clear that he doesn’t know what to do.
That he doesn’t know what to do is clear.
It was brave of you to save that girl from drowning.
To save that girl from drowning was brave of you.

It is also used with be + a singular or plural noun (person, place or thing.)  It doesn’t really mean anything but is used as an artificial subject.  The real subject is the object of the sentence.

Examples:
It was Susan who cleaned the fridge this morning.
Susan cleaned the fridge this morning.
It is my friends who are giving me a going-away party
My friends are giving me a going-away party.
It was Vancouver that won the game against Calgary last night.
Vancouver won the game against Calgary last night.
It was Sochi, Russia, that was chosen as the host city for the 2014 Olympics.
Sochi, Russia, was chosen as the host city for the 2014 Olympics.
It is a traffic accident that is causing this slowdown.
A traffic accident is causing this slowdown.
It was his shoulders that were injured in the accident.
His shoulders were injured in the accident.

Similarly, it is used for weather, time and distance.  Again, it doesn’t really mean anything but serves as the subject of the sentence.

Examples:
It has been raining for four hours.
We’d better bring our boots because it’s going to snow.
It’s not even twelve o’clock yet.
I think it was four in the morning when we left the party.
It’s too far to drive, so let’s take the train.
It is 200 kilometers from here to Seattle.

There, on the other hand, can be singular or plural depending on the object that follows.  There is used to state that something exists, something is real.  There, like it, doesn’t really mean anything but is used as an artificial subject.  The real subject is the object of the sentence.

Examples:
There are 24 students in this class.
24 students are in this class.
There is only one correct answer.
One correct answer exists.
There are many reasons why he can’t help.
Many reasons exist for why he can’t help.
There must be an explanation.
An explanation must exist.

Notice that the verb is plural when the object is plural.

Here’s an exercise to test your understanding:

© 2013 Ambien Malecot

 

The conditional is used when a result depends on something else to happen first, when something else is required before a result can happen.  There are 4 conditionals – a  general, a future, a present, and a past.  To learn this grammar, you need to memorize a pattern first.  You will see this pattern in the examples below.

The general conditional:

This conditional is used when the same action always produces the same result.

The pattern in the present is:  present simple or present continuous in the if (dependent) clause, and the present simple in the main (independent) clause.

Examples in the present:
If it is raining, I always take my umbrella.  (Every time it rains, I take my umbrella.)
If it’s Tuesday, it’s my turn to make dinner. (I always make dinner on Tuesdays.)
If water freezes, it expands  (This is a scientific fact, so it always happens.)
If she is going for a walk, she always takes her dog.  (Every time she goes for a walk, she takes her dog.)

Examples in the past:
If I brought flowers to my wife, she was happy.  (She was always happy when I brought her flowers.)
If she cheated on a test, she felt guilty.  (Every time she cheated, she felt guilty.)

Note:  All these examples can also use when in place of if (but then it’s no longer a conditional sentence.)

Example:
When it’s raining, I always take my umbrella.
When it’s Tuesday, it’s my turn to make dinner.
When I brought flowers to my wife, she was happy.
When she cheated on a test, she felt guilty.

The future conditional, also known as conditional I or the future possible:

This conditional is used when the result is a real possibility in the future.

The pattern is:  simple present in the if clause, and one of the future tenses in the main clause.  The future can be expressed by will, going to, the present continuous, or the future continuous.

Examples:
If I win the lottery, I will travel around the world first class.
If Maria studies hard, she’s going to pass.
If we finish our project, we’re eating out tonight.
If he wins the game, he‘ll be celebrating all night.

In the main clause, in addition to will (and the other futures) you can also use can for ability, may for possibility, should for advice, and must (or have to) for necessity.

Examples:
If I earn enough money this summer, I can travel to Europe in the fall.  (I will have the ability to travel to Europe.)
If he drives all day, he may be too tired to go out with us.  (There is the possibility that he will be tired.)
If Alicia’s tooth continues to hurt, she should see her dentist.  (Advice for Alicia.)
If you see this missing girl anywhere, you must call the police immediately.  (It is necessary to call the police if you see her.)

The present conditional, also known as conditional II or the present unreal:

This conditional is used for a result you can only imagine because the action that could produce that result is not real.

The pattern is:  simple past in the if clause, and would + simple verb form in the main clause.

Examples:
If I had more money, I would live in a better apartment.  (But I don’t have more money.)
If they visited us more often, they would get to know us better.  (But they don’t visit us very often.
If Peter stopped smoking, he would have more energy.  (But Peter isn’t going to stop smoking.)
If he lost his wedding ring, his wife would never forgive him.  (But he hasn’t lost his ring.)

In the main clause, in addition to would you can also use could for ability, might for possibility, should for advice and would have to for necessity.

Examples;
If I got a second job, I could earn enough money to buy a car.  (I will have the ability to earn enough money.)
If she started wearing makeup, she might look prettier.  (There is a possibility of looking prettier.)
If Bryan hurt his knee, he should go to the nurse’s office.  (Advice for Bryan.)
If we arrived late, we would have to report to the office before going to class.  (When we were late, it was necessary to report to the office.)

Note:  If the verb in the main clause is be, then was changes to were.

Examples:
If I were you, I would tell him the truth.
If my father were here, he would know what to do.
If your boyfriend were serious, he would ask you to marry him.

One last thing about all these conditionals.  In all the examples above, the If clause is before the main clause, and there’s a comma ( , ) at the end of that clause.  You can also state the conditional with the if clause after the main clause with no comma used.

Examples:
I always take my umbrella if it’s raining.
I’ll travel around the world first class if I win the lottery.
I would live in a better apartment if I had more money.

Here is a summary of the 3 patterns:

General conditional  (Conditional O):

If it rains, I always take my umbrella.

Future conditional  (Conditional I):

If it rains tomorrow, I’ll take my umbrella.

Present conditional  (Conditional II):

If it rained, I would take my umbrella.

Review these 3 conditionals, and then do the exercises below.

© 2013 Ambien Malecot